LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


SOMETHING    FOR    MOTHER'S    DINNER 


Peas  and 
Pea  Culture 


A  Practical  and  Scientific  Discussion  of  Peas,  Relating 
to  the  History,  Varieties,  Cultural  Methods,  Insect 
and  Fungous  Pests,  with  special  chapters  on  the  Canned 
Pea  Industry,  Peas  as  Forage  and  Soiling  Crops, 
Garden  Peas,  Sweet  Peas,  Seed  Breeding,  Etc. 


By 

GLENN   C.    SEVEY,   B.  S 

ii 

Editor  Neiv  England  Homestead 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1911 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Printed  in   U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

This  little  book  on  Peas  and  Pea  Culture  is  in- 
tended to  be  of  value  to  the  student  and  practical 
farmer  alike.  Enough  of  the  scientific  has  been 
provided  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  former,  and  the 
references  to  principles  of  breeding  and  improvement 
of  existing  strains  go  into  sufficient  detail  to  prove 
about  as  interesting  and  sleep  providing  for  the 
average  college  student  as  some  of  Darwin's  exten- 
sive treatises  on  plant  and  animal  life.  For  the 
practical  grower,  great  care  has  been  exercised  to 
keep  details  true  to  field  conditions.  The  author 
has  been  interested  in  this  crop  from  his  early  days 
when  he  first  helped  "  dadder  "  to  gather  a  mess  for 
dinner,  on  through  to  his  more  mature  years  when 
gathering  for  his  own  family  and  sending  the  sur- 
plus to  early  market  at  $1  to  $2  per  bushel. 

The  canning  of  peas,  which  has  grown  to  vast 
proportions,  is  an  industry  by  itself.  So  the  author 
took  two  weeks'  vacation  and  visited  large  canning 
districts  in  New  York  and  Michigan.  Here  he 
studied  conditions  at  first  hand,  visiting  with  the 
packers,  noting  the  various  processes  and  climbing 
on  to  the  lumber  wagon  to  go  and  visit  the  farmer, 
watch  him  gather  the  crop  and  bring  it  to  the 
factory.  Aside  from  this,  many  resources  have  been 
drawn  upon,  including  the  scraps  of  testimony  from 
various  experiment  stations,  agricultural  colleges, 
individual  experimenters,  etc. 

So  far  as  advised  we  know  of  no  individual 
treatise  on  the  subject  of  Peas  and  their  culture.  In 

V 

225894 


VI  PREFACE 

fact,  one  is  surprised  to  note  the  dearth  of  specific 
information  provided  on  the  subject  in  printed  form. 
One  wishing  facts  on  certain  cultural  principles 
might  find  them  in  one  place,  and  to  get  ideas  on 
insect  and  fungous  pests  would  perhaps  spend  hours 
searching  elsewhere  for  desired  information.  There- 
fore, the  aim  of  this  book  is  to  save  all  this  time  and 
perhaps  spare  the  temper. 

An  honest  effort  has  been  made  to  provide  com- 
prehensive, authoritative,  and  specific  information 
on  the  subject  of  Peas.  Readers  who  note  errors, 
who  have  experiences  not  in  accord,  or  which  will 
supplement  the  principles  herein  set  forth,  will 
confer  a  favor  by  sending  direct  to  the  undersigned 
to  the  end  that  the  second  edition  may  prove  more 
satisfactory  to  the  author  and  the  public  alike. 

GLENN  C.  SEVEY. 
RUSSELL,  MASS.,  April  4,  1911. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

Page 

BOTANY,  HISTORY  AND  DISTRIBUTION  .  .  1-6 
Flat  pea,  i;  Chick  pea,  i;  Cowpea,  2; 
Partridge  pea,  2 ;  Square  pod  pea,  2 ; 
Tangier  pea,  3 ;  Buffalo  pea,  3 ;  Sweet 
pea,  3 ;  Ceylon  pea,  3 ;  Classification 
of  peas,  3;  History,  4;  Distribution, 
4-6. 

CHAPTER  II 

SOILS,  FERTILIZERS  AND  INOCULATION    .        .        7-14 
Place  in  rotation,  7-9;    Fertilizers  for 
peas,    9-11;    Nitrogen-gathering    char- 
acteristic, 11-12;  Inoculation,  12-14. 

CHAPTER  III 

CULTURAL  PRINCIPLES — HARVEST  .  .  15-24 
Planting,  15;  Amount  of  seed,  15-17; 
Depth  of  planting,  17-18;  Manner  of 
planting,  18;  Seed  considerations,  18- 
20 ;  Cultivation,  20 ;  Harvesting,  20-22 ; 
Thrashing,  22-23 ;  Yields,  23-24. 

CHAPTER  IV 

COMPOSITION  AND  FEEDING  VALUE       .        .        25-35 

Composition,    25-26;    Pea    meal,    26; 

Composition     compared     with     other 

vii 


Vlll  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS 

Page 

feedstuffs,  27 ;  Nutritive  value,  27-29 ; 
Cooking  and  digestibility,  29-30 ;  Feed- 
ing value,  30-31 ;  Peas  for  cows,  31-32; 
Peas  for  steers,  32 ;  Peas  for  sheep  and 
lambs,  32-33;  Peas  for  swine,  33-34; 
Peas  for  horses  and  chickens,  34-35. 

CHAPTER  V 
INSECT  AND  FUNGOUS  PESTS        .        .        .        36-43 

Pea  weevil,  36-38;  Pea  moth,  38-39; 
Pea  louse,  39-40;  Miscellaneous  in- 
sects, 40-41 ;  Pea  blight  or  leaf  spot, 
41-42;  Powdery  mildew,  42;  Root  rot 
fungus,  42;  Miscellaneous  pea  fungi, 
42-43- 

CHAPTER  VI 
THE  CANNED  PEA  INDUSTRY        .        .        .        44-53 

Varieties  grown,  45;  Time  of  harvest- 
ing, 45-47;  Grading  the  crop,  47-48; 
Thrashing,  48-49;  Blanching  the  peas, 
49;  Size  of  cans,  49-50;  Processing  or 
cooking,  50-51;  Peas  spoiling,  51-52; 
Pea  silage,  52-53. 

CHAPTER  VII 
PEAS  AS  FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS    .        .        54-65 

Culture,  54-55 ;  Fertilizers,  55-58 ;  Feed 
for  live  stock,  58-59;  Cowpea,  59-64; 
Cover  crop  for  orchards,  64-65. 


TABLE  OF    CONTENTS  ix 

Pag© 

CHAPTER  VIII 
BREEDING  AND  SEED  IMPROVEMENT      .        .        66-71 

Seed  growing  specialty,  66-69;  Possi- 
bilities in  breeding,  69-71. 

CHAPTER  IX 
GARDEN  PEAS  AND  VARIETIES        .        .        .        72-81 

Germination,  73-74;  Supports,  74-76; 
Winter  forcing,  76;  Varieties,  76-81. 

CHAPTER  X 
SWEET  PEAS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE        .        .        82-89 

Soil  considerations,  83 ;  Sowing,  83-84 ; 
Culture,  84-86;  Enemies  of  the  sweet 
pea,  86;  Trellising,  86-87;  Types  and 
varieties,  87-88;  Four  cardinal  don'ts, 
88-89. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Something  for  Mother's  Dinner — Frontispiece 

Harvesting  with  Mowing  Machine       .          .  8 

Loading  Green  Pea  Vines  for  the  Cannery     .  16 

Special  Pea  Vine  Harvester     ....  17 
Mower    with     Pea-Lifting    Attachment    for 

Cutter  Bar 19 

A  Pea  and  Bean  Huller,  or  Thrasher      .         .  21 

Green  Pea  Vines  Bunched  Ready  for  Hauling  28 

Pea  Weevil  and  Infected  Pea         ...  36 

Pea  Moth  and  Caterpillar;  Infected  Pea         .  39 
Load  of  Green  Pea  Vines  Going  to  New  York 

Cannery 46 

Oats  and  Peas  for  Forage       ....  56 
Cowpeas    Grown    at    Michigan    Experiment 

Station 60 

Two   Each   of   Nott's   Excelsior,    Prosperity, 

and  Advancer 68 

Good  and  Poor  Specimens  of  Juno  Pea         .  73 

Fair  Sample  of  Popular  Thomas  Laxton         .  75 

Gradus,  an  Excellent  Pea        ....  78 

The  Productive  Prosperity      ....  80 


CHAPTER  I 
BOTANY,  HISTORY  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

Peas  belong  to  the  great  legume  family  of  plants 
—a  family  which  constitutes  the  backbone  of  an 
improved  agriculture.  The  Greek  and  Latin  name 
of  the  pea  is  Pisum  and  there  are  six  species.  The 
important  one  is  the  common  garden  pea  or  Pisum 
sativum.  Pisum  sativum,  var.  arvense,  is  the  field  pea 
commonly  known  as  Canada  field  pea.  Several  so- 
called  peas  are  not  peas  at  all,  although  belonging 
to  the  leguminosas  family.  Some  are  given  herewith. 

Flat  Pea  '(Lathyrus  sylvestris)  is  a  forage  plant 
closely  resembling  the  sweet  pea.  It  is  particularly 
adapted  to  light  soils,  succeeding  where  clover  or 
corn  would  fail.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  will 
produce  a  remarkable  growth  of  vines,  three  to 
four  feet  in  length,  and  provide  several  cuttings 
each  season.  A  serious  objection  is  that  stock  do 
not  like  it.  In  experiment,  at  the  Michigan  station, 
sheep  and  cattle  lost  flesh  on  rations  of  either  flat 
pea  hay  or  flat  pea  silage.  It  is  rich  in  protein,  air- 
dried  hay  analyzing  27  per  cent  protein,  and  would 
probably  be  more  largely  grown,  except  that  it  re- 
quires two  or  three  years  to  get  it  established. 
Plants  grow  eight  to  twelve  inches  tall  the  first  sea- 
son, and  ground  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds.  Can 
be  sown  in  the  spring  in  drills  18  inches  apart. 

Chick  Pea  (Cicer  arictinum),  also  called  Idaho 
and  Egyptian  pea,  is  adapted  to  a  variety  of  soils, 
but  succeeds  best  on  clay  loams.  In  composition 
it  is  similar  to  the  common  field  pea,  but  leaves 


PEA   CULTURE 


possess  a  large  amount  of  oxalic  acid,  which  makes 
plant  unfavorable  for  feeding  horses.  It  is  an  an- 
nual, with  vetchlike  leaves  growing  12  to  18  inches 
high.  Pods  are  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  long, 
and  contain  one  or  two  wrinkled  peas  slightly  larger 
than  the  common  garden  pea.  The  slight  growth 
makes  it  undesirable  for  a  forage  plant.  At  the 
Colorado  experiment  station  chick  peas  were  planted 
in  rows  30  inches  apart  and  6  to  12  inches  distant 
in  the  row.  A  fine  growth  resulted.  The  cost  of 
production  was  about  one  cent  a  pound. 

Cowpea  (Vigna  Catjang),  really  more  of  a  bean 
than  a  pea,  is  a  wonderful  soil  renovator  and  has 
been  used  in  the  South  for  a  century,  and  a  half. 
While  the  plant  is  sensitive  to  frost,  it  is  being 
grown  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts  and  Wiscon- 
sin. A  special  chapter  is  devoted  to  peas  and  cow- 
peas  as  forage  plants  on  a  later  page,  which  see. 

Partridge  Pea  (Cassia  Chamcccrista).  —  Some- 
times called  sensitive  pea  and  Magothy  Bay  bean. 
This  was  once  popular  for  plowing  under,  and  was 
used  largely  in  the  South,  notably  in  Virginia  and 
Maryland.  There  it  was  sown  with  oats  in  the 
spring,  and  after  the  oats  were  harvested  peas  came 
on  to  maturity.  The  cowpea  for  the  South  is  so 
much  superior  for  green  manuring  that  the  partridge 
pea  is  being  used  only  occasionally.  Plants  have  a 
conspicuous  yellowish  purple  flower. 

Square  Pod  Pea  (Lobus  Tetrogonolbus)  is  a  fine 
soil  renovator,  owing  to  its  pronounced  tendency  to 
produce  root  tubercles.  Plants  grow  rapidly,  but 
unfortunately  will  not  stand  our  climate.  In  Cali- 
fornia it  produced  24  tons  herbage  to  the  acre,  but 
will  not  stand  either  frost  or  drouth. 


BOTANY,    HISTORY   AND  DISTRIBUTION  3 

Tangier  Pea  (Lathyrus  Tingitanus). — An  annual 
plant  native  to  Barbary.  It  was  brought  to  Cali- 
fornia in  1889.  Apparently,  it  is  hardy,  and  seeds 
can  be  used  for  table,  while  cattle  will  eat  plants. 
Very  little  known  in  the  United  States. 

Buffalo  Pea  (Astragalus  crassicarpus). — This,  like 
the  others,  belongs  to  the  legume  family.  It  is 
found  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  vines  are 
sprawling,  bearing  short  stubby  pods  about  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  inch  in  diameter.  These  are  ap- 
parently relished  by  hogs,  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
plant  gains  maturity  in  Texas  in  April,  and  by  the 
middle  of  June  in  northern  latitudes.  Has  been 
very  little  cultivated 

Sweet  Pea  (Lathyrus  odoratus). — This  is  known 
to  all  people,  and  a  special  chapter  on  the  subject 
will  be  found  on  later  pages. 

Ceylon  Pea. — In  the  California  experiment  sta- 
tion report  for  1895  to  1897,  E-  J-  Wixon  speaks  of 
the  Ceylon  pea.  He  describes  it  as  having  large 
pods,  being  very  prolific,  stating  that  it  grows  well 
throughout  the  state.  "  It  is  of  value  as  a  late  pea 
for  table  or  canning." 

Various  Classifications  of  Peas. — Common,  every- 
day peas  can  be  classified  as  either  garden  or  field. 
The  former  may  be  used  in  the  green  state  shelled, 
or  the  pods  and  all  may  be  used  like  string  beans. 
The  latter  are  frequently  called  "edible  podded" 
peas.  The  field  peas,  grown  in  a  larger  way,  may 
be  used  as  seed,  canning,  forage  and  green  manur- 
ing, for  split  peas  for  culinary  purposes,  and  for 
stock  feeding.  Special  chapters  are  devoted  to 
these  industries. 

The  garden   pea  differs  from  the  field  or  stock 


4  PEAS  AND  PEA   CULTURE 

pea  in  that  the  blossoms  are  white  instead  of  violet 
or  purple,  the  seed  is  larger  but  more  tender  and 
sweet.  Another  classification  of  peas  is,  smooth  and 
wrinkled  sorts,  the  latter  being  sweeter  and  more 
edible,  with  larger  pods  and  more  peas  in  the  pod. 
However,  the  smooth  sorts  are  earlier  and  more 
hardy.  Peas  are  frequently  classified  as  early,  me- 
dium, and  late,  according  to  the  season  of  ripening. 
The  varying  characteristic  of  climbing,  dwarf,  and 
semi-dwarf  habit  of  growth,  constitutes  yet  another 
basis  of  classification. 

History. — Peas  have  been  known  for  centuries 
and  were  no  doubt  cultivated  before  the  Christian 
era.  It  was  a  common  plant  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  reference  to  it  is  frequently  found  in 
their  literature.  One  Lydgate,  a  writer  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VII,  mentions  peas  being  peddled  about 
the  streets  of  London. 

Distribution. — Peas  are  pretty  generally  scattered 
about  the  country.  They  are  native  to  Europe,  but 
are  widely  cultivated  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  plant  prefers  cool  temperatures  and 
abundant  moisture  supply.  Growing  them  for  seed 
is  not  recommended  in  the  South.  In  Canada  it  is 
a  leading  crop.  In  the  province  of  Ontario  alone 
the  average  annual  area  devoted  to  peas  for  the  20 
years  ending  1902,  was  710,498  acres,  and  the  aver- 
age annual  yield  approximated  13,000,000  bushels, 
with  an  average  yield  around  19  bushels  to  the 
acre.  Most  of  these  are  fed  out  on  the  farms.  The 
northern  tier  of  states  down  to,  and  including  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York,  and  New  England,  will  pro- 
duce seed.  The  southern  limit  for  the  successful 
growing  of  seed  peas  has  been  designated  as  the 


BOTANY,    HISTORY   AND   DISTRIBUTION 


northern  limit  for  the  most  successful  growing  of 
cowpeas.  In  the  warmer  southern  climate  they  are 
grown  with  great  success  for  soiling  purposes  and 
in  restricted  sections  for  canning  factories,  and  in 
green  state  for  northern  markets. 

The  accompanying  table,  taken  from  the  Federal 
Census  of  1900,  affords  something  of  an  idea  of  the 
pea-producing  states.  It  gives  the  number  of  acres, 
comparative  yield  in  bushels,  with  the  increase  and 
the  average  yield  to  the  acre. 


PEA-PRODUCING  STATES 


States 


II 


South    Carolina—  143,070  1,162,705  698,281  66.5         8.1 

Michigan    ------  7^,376  i,i34,43*  1,428,475  20.6  15.9 

Georgia  ________  167,032  1,130,441  974,670  16.0         6.8 

Wisconsin  ______  68,819  1,098,819  919,058  19.6  16.0 

North  Carolina—  88,407  876,167  437,284  100.4         9-9 

Tennessee  ______  82,841  760,663  96,972  684.4        9-2 

Alabama    ______  91,126  665,388  326,413  103.8         7.3 

Mississippi    _____  69,490  590,537  254,526  132.0         8.5 

Texas    ---------  33,974  333,462  205,692  62.1         9.8 

New    York  ______  J4,748  251,889  228,726  10.1  17.1 

Arkansas    ------  31,4*4  245,894  169,170  45-4         7-8 

Virginia    _______  22,206  219,142  19,864  1,003.2         9.9 

Florida    --------  17,875  159,814  70,632  126.3         8.9 

Louisiana    ______  15,190  146,298  81,700  79.1         9.6 

Illinois    ________  12,982  103,386  9,010  1,047.5         8.0 

Washington    ----  3,573  91,889  25,523  260.1  25.7 

Kentucky  -------  8,394  83,089  8,445  883.9         9-9 

California    _____  2,014  57,299  32,364  77.0  28.5 

Missouri    -------  5,319  54,763  14,486  278.0  10.3 

Colorado  _______  3,621  47,461  45,270  4.8  13.1 

Maine    _________  2,300  35,991  23,146  55.5  15.6 

Montana    ______  1,512  32,265  9,612  235.7  21.3 

New    Mexico  ____  2,220  28,071  7,430  277.8  12.6 

Iowa    __________  I,556  27,606  27,240  1.3  17.7 

Oregon    --------  1,304  22,615  11,214  101.7  17.3 

Director  C.  B.   Williams  of  the   North   Carolina 


6  PEAS   AND    PEA    CULTURE 

experiment  station  writes  the  author :  "  We  consider 
the  pea  industry  important  in  this  state.  They  are 
mostly  grown  for  garden  seed  and  hay  purposes. 
Very  few  are  canned.  Throughout  the  coastal  plain 
section  of  the  state  much  attention  is  devoted  to 
the  growth  of  garden  peas  for  market  purposes. 
Georgia  produces  large  quantities  of  green  peas,  and 
this  constitutes  an  important  truck  crop.  North 
Carolina  raises  a  lot  of  sugar  peas  for  early  markets. 
These  are  familiarly  known  as  garden  peas,  pods 
being  picked  green  and  sold.  A  large  dealer  at 
Hickory,  N.  C,  states  that  500  to  1,000  acres  of  such 
peas  are  shipped  from  the  vicinity  of  Elizabeth  City 
and  Goldsboro  annually.  These  go  to  the  produce 
trade  and  none  reach  the  canning  market.  North 
Carolina  is  also  a  great  state  for  cowpeas,  there 
probably  being  about  100,000  bushels  going  to  the 
North  and  West  every  season,  and  used  for  fertiliz- 
ing purposes."  Jonathan  Havens,  of  Washington, 
N.  C.,  writes :  "  It  is  a  broad  assertion,  but  I  believe 
every  kind  under  the  sun  grows  luxuriantly  in  this 
section.  I  can  personally  name  3O-odd  varieties  and 
with  one  exception  they  are  good  both  for  stock  and 
human  food." 

Wisconsin  is  a  great  pea-growing  state.  There 
are  many  factories  within  its  borders  and  numer- 
ous varieties  of  peas  are  grown  for  the  market. 
Field  peas  constitute  an  important  farm  crop. 

Michigan  produces  large  quantities  of  both  field 
and  garden  peas.  Growing  for  seed  is  developing 
into  an  important  industry.  New  York  produces 
large  quantities  of  peas  for  canning  factories.  More 
will  be  specified  on  this  subject  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Canned  Pea  Industry. 


CHAPTER  II 
SOILS,   FERTILIZERS   AND    INOCULATION 

A  wide  variety  of  soils  will  produce  peas,  but  for 
best  results  plant  on  a  clay  loam  which  is  not  in  an 
acid  condition.  The  stiffest  of  clays,  well  tilled, 
will  produce  peas,  and  light  sandy  soils  will  return 
a  moderate  yield.  Mucky  soil  overladen  with  humus 
is  likely  to  produce  too  rank  vines,  and  light  sandy 
soil  will  not  produce  enough  vine  growth.  The 
ideal  soil  is  cool  and  reasonably  moist.  W.  M. 
Hayes1  conducted  experiments  in  Dakota  and  Min- 
nesota which  indicate  that  a  larger  yield  of  peas 
than  of  wheat  can  be  obtained  on  sandy  lands. 
Suzuki2  gives  results  of  four  years'  continuous  cul- 
ture of  peas  grown  on  humus  loam  soil  unfertilized 
and  fertilized.  He  declares  no  trace  of  soil  weari- 
ness or  sickness  appeared  when  soil  was  liberally 
fertilized  and  concluded  that  soil  sickness  may  in 
some  cases  be  due  simply  to  deficiency  of  available 
plant  food. 

Place  in  Rotation. — As  the  pea  crop  gathers  more 
nitrogen  than  consumed  by  the  plant,  it  may  be 
followed  with  distinct  advantage  by  a  variety  of 
crops,  notably  the  cereals.  Von  Sellhorst3  states 
that  peas,  owing  to  the  small  quantity  of  water 
drawn  from  the  soil,  can  with  advantage  be  followed 
by  winter  cereals. 


*N.  D.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  10. 

2  Experiment  Station  Record,  Vol.  20. 

8  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  14. 


SOILS,    FERTILIZERS    AND    INOCULATION  Q 

Shuttleworth4  tried  surface  and  underground 
irrigation  with  oats,  wheat  and  peas.  The  water 
required  for  maturing  crops  in  subwatered  cylinders 
was  65  pounds  for  oats,  34  for  wheat,  and  104  for 
peas.  In  the  case  of  peas  the  yield  in  the  sub- 
watered  cylinder  was  116  grams,  as  compared  with 
63  grams  on  the  surface  water.  Nobbe  and  Richter5 
state  that  ether  and  hydrogen  peroxide  applied  to 
soils  where  peas  were  grown  failed  to  sterifize  the 
soil  and  increase  the  yield  of  peas.  Nakamura6 
states  that  borax  when  used  at  the  rate  of  one 
milligram  per  kilogram  of  soil  exerted  a  stimulating 
action  on  peas. 

Fertilizers  for  Peas. — It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that 
peas  do  not  require  much  fertilizer.  While  it  is 
possible  to  have  lands  too  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
humus,  resulting  in  heavy  vine  growth,  there  is  little 
danger  of  oversupply  of  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  both  of  which  materials  are  essential  to  suc- 
cess. Some  experts  say  there  is  nothing  better 
than  stable  manure,  especially  if  plowed  under  the 
preceding  fall.  It  supplies  a  good  amount  of  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter.  Ashes  and  even  well-com- 
posted hen  manure  will  give  good  results.  One 
expert  says  that  an  application  of  400  to  500  pounds 
commercial  fertilizer  to  the  acre,  composed  almost 
wholly  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  is  desirable. 
He  says  10  per  cent  potash  in  a  fertilizer  is  none 
too  much  on  sandy  soil  for  peas.  Nitrate  of  soda 
is  used  sparingly,  and  at  time  of  planting,  to  start 
early  growth. 


*Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Farm  Rpt,  1899. 
5E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  16. 
6E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  1 6. 


IO  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

Jenkins7  found  that  a  crop  of  peas  removed  from 
each  acre  47.8  pounds  nitrogen,  13.1  pounds  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  12.7  pounds  potash. 

Brooks8  reports  that  with  peas,  dried  blood  gave 
somewhat  larger  crop  than  nitrogen  in  other  forms. 
When  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  muriate  of  potash 
were  used  together,  the  growth  was  decidedly  in- 
ferior to  that  where  other  combinations  were  used. 
Newman9  tested  seven  varieties  of  peas  grown  on 
poor  sandy  upland  with  different  fertilizers.  High- 
est per  cent  of  germination  was  95,  as  grown  on  the 
plot  fertilized  with  acid  phosphate.  The  lowest 
germination  was  66,  resulting  on  the  nitrate  of  soda 
plot.  Peas  planted  on  acid  phosphate  germinated 
three  to  four  days  earlier,  blossomed  four  to 
six  days  earlier,  and  produced  ripe  pods 
six  to  nine  days  earlier  than  those  where  kainit, 
nitrate  of  soda,  or  cottonseed  meal  were  used.  The 
application  of  each  was  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds 
to  the  acre. 

Clinton10  reports  fertilizer  tests  with  Canada  field 
peas  and  various  other  crops.  Best  returns  were 
secured  with  acid  phosphate  and  dissolved  bone 
black.  Untreated  phosphate  floats  were  apparently 
without  effect  upon  the  peas. 

Von  Sellhorst11  states  that  the  yield  of  peas  was 
largely  increased  by  the  use  of  potash,  while  nitro- 
gen was  only  slightly  beneficial.  Wagner12  reports 
experiments  extending  over  12  years,  which  show 

7  Ct.  Exper  Sta.  Rpt.,  1896,  p.  334. 

8  Mass.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt,  1897. 

9  Ark.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  34. 

10  N.  Y.  Exper.  Sta.,  Cornell  Bulletin   201. 
11 E.  S.  R.,  Vol  17. 

12  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  1 6. 


SOILS,    FERTILIZERS   AND    INOCULATION  II 

that  continuous  medium  applications  of  basic  slag, 
frequently  called  Thomas  slag  meal,  were  continu- 
ously beneficial.  He  declares  the  richer  the  soils 
are  in  phosphoric  acid,  the  smaller  application  of 
nitrogen  is  required. 

Brooks13  found  that  muriate  of  potash  is  slightly 
better  for  peas  than  is  the  sulphate  of  potash. 
Clausen14  found  that  potash  fertilizers,  notably 
kainit,  increased  the  proportion  of  seed  to  the  vine 
to  a  marked  extent. 

Wheeler  and  Adams15  reported  that  liming  the 
soil  was  especially  valuable  in  the  case  of  White 
Wonder  Canada  field  pea.  Nodules  were  abundant 
and  quite  evenly  distributed  upon  the  roots.  On 
unlimed  plots  only  a  very  few  nodules  were  found, 
which  were  of  large  size  and  tended  to  grow  in 
clusters.  The  application  of  caustic  lime  may  be  so 
large  as  to  prove  injurious. 

Nitrogen-Gathering  Characteristic. — A  s  with 
other  legumes,  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  of 
the  pea  is  its  ability  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  store  it  up  in  the  soil  and  the  plants.  This 
is  done  through  the  medium  of  root  tubercles,  or 
nodules  as  frequently  called.  Beeson16  conducted 
a  rather  elaborate  set  of  experiments  relative  to 
gathering  of  nitrogen  by  the  pea  plant  and  states 
that  there  is  a  greater  accumulation  of  nitrates  in 
the  soil  under  leguminous  plants  than  in  the  bare 
soil  or  the  soil  under  corn,  cotton,  or  sorghum.  His 
results  indicate  that  the  micro-organisms  or  tuber- 


13  Mass.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1903. 

14  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  20. 

15  R.  I.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  96. 
1B  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  10. 


12  PEAS  AND  PEA   CULTURE 

cles  of  the  pea  roots,  assimilate  more  nitrogen  than 
the  plant  needs  for  its  growth.  If  this  be  true  he 
argues  that  peas  planted  with  a  crop  will  tend  to 
increase  the  yield  of  that  crop  unless  plants  are  so 
thick  as  to  interfere  with  the  root  development  or 
as  to  use  up  too  much  water  in  growth.  Various 
experiments  have  shown  that  uncultivated  soils 
produce  a  less  number  of  bacteria  than  cultivated. 
A  fair  proportion  of  humus  favors  tubercle  develop- 
ment, yet  there  is  likely  to  be  slight  development 
of  tubercles  where  soil  is  exceedingly  rich  in  humus. 
Potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  lime,  all  favor  the  pro- 
duction of  root  tubercles. 

Inoculation. — There  have  been  many  experiments 
relative  to  development  of  root  tubercles  by  treat- 
ing the  soil  or  the  seed  with  materials  carrying  great 
numbers  of  the  desirable  bacteria.  Kirk17  made  a 
thorough  investigation  and  declared  that  his  results 
proved  (i)  that  on  land  which  will  already  produce 
a  good  crop  of  legumes  the  inoculation  is  of  little 
benefit  to  the  crop ;  but  (2)  it  increases  the  number 
of  nodules  on  the  root  and  consequently  a  quantity 
of  nitrogen  is  left  in  the  soil  for  the  benefit  of  the  fol- 
lowing crop,  such  as  grains  or  roots,  which  have 
not  the  power  of  providing  nitrogen  for  themselves ; 
(3)  inoculated  seed  invariably  gave  better  results 
than  the  inoculated  soil. 

Halsted18  planted  peas  on  soil  where  no  legumi- 
nous plants  had  grown  for  at  least  eight  years.  Por- 
tions of  the  plot  received  a  dressing  of  soil  that  had 
recently  borne  peas.  At  harvest  ten  plants  were 
taken  at  random  from  the  treated  and  untreated 


17  N.  Z.  Dept.  of  Agri.  Annual  Rpt,  1905. 

18  N.  J.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1898. 


SOILS,    FERTILIZERS   AND    INOCULATION  13 

plats  and  the  tubercles  counted,  the  result  being 
that  there  were  nearly  ten  times  as  many  on  the 
roots  of  the  treated  vines  as  on  the  untreated  ones. 
This  shows  decidedly  favorable  results  through  arti- 
ficial inoculation  by  means  of  soil  taken  from  a  field 
which  bore  peas. 

Ladd19  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  to  ascer- 
tain whether  any  advantage  would  be  derived 
through  inoculation  from  especially  prepared  cul- 
tures. He  used  the  commercial  culture  known  as 
Nitragin.  He  reached  the  conclusion  that  where 
the  soil  is  well  stocked  with  organic  matter  the  gain 
obtained  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  use  of  the  cul- 
ture. However,  in  the  case  of  light  sandy  soils  and 
for  truck  gardening,  it  may  prove  valuable.  In  re- 
cent months  another  proprietary  culture  known  as 
Farmogerm  is  reported  as  having  given  excellent 
results. 

One  interesting  experiment  by  Nobbe  and  Hilt- 
ner20  deals  with  the  reciprocal  inoculations  of  bac- 
teria upon  beans  and  peas.  It  was  found  that  if 
either  plant  were  inoculated  with  germs  from  the 
tubercles  of  the  other,  some  nodules  would  be 
formed,  but  the  organism  seemed  to  be  without 
power  of  nitrogen  assimilation.  If  the  inoculation 
continued  a  second  season,  or  through  a  second  and 
third  series  of  culture,  the  bacteria  became  nearly 
as  efficient  as  those  from  the  roots  of  the  same 
genus.  The  possibility  of  transfer  of  tubercle  bac- 
teria from  the  roots  of  one  plant  to  those  of  the 
other  genus  is  affirmed. 

Whatever  the  method  of  inoculation,  the  grower 


19  N.  D.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  35. 

20  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  12. 


14  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

should  take  pains  to  incorporate  the  bacteria-carry- 
ing agent  with  the  soil  without  delay,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  killing  of  organisms  by  the  hot  sun  and 
wind.  This  artificial  inoculation  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  recommended  for  alfalfa, 
clover,  and  other  legumes,  whether  it  be  through 
"  cultures  "  or  through  soil  from  old  fields. 


CHAPTER  III 
CULTURAL  PRINCIPLES— HARVEST 

Authorities  agree  that  fall  plowing  for  peas  is 
preferable.  If  for  no  other  reason,  it  is  desirable 
from  the  general  advantage  that  fall  plowing  opens 
up  the  land  for  the  action  of  frost  and  the  elements 
through  winter.  Fall  plowing  is  less  important 
when  light  ground  forms  the  seed  bed.  Spring 
plowing,  however,  is  not  objectionable,  and  is  in 
common  practice.  Thorough  harrowing  with  disk 
and  smoothing  harrows  will  be  appreciated  by  the 
crop.  Peas  are  very  vigorous  and  free  growers,  and 
are  broadcasted  by  some  on  the  furrow  and  simply 
disked  in.  This  provides  no  thoroughly  worked 
seed  bed. 

Planting. — The  time  of  planting  may  vary  with 
varieties  and  the  object  for  which  grown.  In  gen- 
eral, sow  the  peas  early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as 
ground  can  be  worked.  Peas  do  not  succeed  best 
in  hot,  drying  sun  and  winds,  and  an  early  start 
will  provide  ample  shade  for  the  ground  by  the 
time  the  hottest  days  come.  Shaw  and  Zavitz1  state 
that  peas  were  sown  at  different  dates  between 
April  22  and  June  6.  The  weight  of  peas  per 
bushel  increased  with  each  successive  seeding. 
However,  the  best  average  yield  to  the  acre  was 
from  seed  sown  April  22. 

Amount  of  Seed. — This  will  vary  according  to 
variety,  soil,  and  for  purpose  grown.  From  two  to 
three  and  one-half  bushels  is  the  range,  with  per- 

1  Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.  for  1892. 

15 


16 


CULTURAL   PRINCIPLES — HARVEST  17 

haps  the  average  between  two  and  one-half  and 
three.  Zavitz  and  Lochhead2  state  that  some  varie- 
ties of  peas,  like  New  Canadian  Beauty,  are  double 
in  size  those  of  other  sorts,  as  Common  Globe  vine. 
Hence  in  seeding  it  was  found  necessary  to  vary 


SPECIAL  PEA  VINE   HARVESTER. 

the  amount  sown  from  two  to  three  and  one-half 
bushels  to  the  acre.  The  time  of  maturity  has 
varied  for  26  varieties,  from  94  to  101  days,  and  the 
experiments  in  length  of  vines  from  19  to  52  inches. 
Depth  of  Planting. — It  is  generally  recommended 
to  plant  deep,  three  to  four  inches.  An  exception 
may  be  for  early  sorts  for  gardening  purposes.  Cor- 
bett3  reports  a  test  made  of  planting  peas  at  depths 


2  Ont.  Agri.  Col.,  Bui.  126. 

3  W.  Va.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  49. 


1 8  PEAS   AND    PEA    CULTURE 

of  two,  three,  four,  five,  six  and  eight  inches.  Those 
planted  three  inches  deep  gained  highest  per 
cent  of  germination  and  a  greater  yield  than 
those  planted  at  other  depths.  Time  of  maturity 
was  not  materially  affected  by  depth  of  planting. 

Manner  of  Planting. — The  popular  method  is 
drilling  with  grain  drill.  Of  course,  in  garden  cul- 
ture hand  planting  and  drilling  with  corn  planter, 
with  special  seed  plates,  are  in  vogue.  When  a 
grain  drill  is  not  available,  peas  are  frequently 
broadcasted  by  hand.  In  this  event  they  may  be 
either  sown  on  the  rough  furrow  and  disked  in,  or 
the  ground  previously  harrowed  and  left  rather 
rough,  peas  broadcasted  and  a  light  smoothing  har- 
row used  for  covering  the  seed.  The  danger  of  this 
method  is  that  seeds  will  not  be  covered  deeply 
enough  and  if  heavy  showers  follow,  are  likely  to  be 
washed  out.  Some  recommend  broadcasting  the 
peas  on  the  land  and  plowing  them  under.  The 
danger  here  is  of  getting  them  too  deep.  Zavitz4 
states  that  in  general,  during  a  two  years'  test, 
drilling  gave  better  results  than  broadcasting. 

Seed  Considerations. — Good  seed  is  an  important 
consideration  with  the  pea  crop  as  with  all  others. 
"As  a  man  sows  so  shall  he  reap."  Zavitz  and 
Lochhead5  report  experiments  for  a  number  of  years 
in  selecting  large  and  small  seed  of  the  same 
variety.  It  resulted  in  an  average  yield  of  30.3  bush- 
els grain  and  one  and  one-third  tons  straw  per  acre 
for  large  seed,  as  against  23.9  bushels  grain  and 
one  and  one-tenth  tons  straw  per  acre  for  small 
seed.  Using  split  pea  seed  as  it  came  from  the 


4  Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.  for  1897. 

5  Ont.  Agri.  Col,,  Bui.  126,  p.  32. 


CULTURAL   PRINCIPLES HARVEST  IQ 

thrasher  in  comparison  with  whole  seed,  the  aver- 
ages were  10  bushels  grain  for  the  former  and  30.7 
bushels  for  the  latter.  Only  about  30  per  cent  of 
weevil-infected  peas  were  found  to  germinate. 

Buchanan6  reports  a  yield  from  sound  pea  seed 
of  28  bushels  to  the  acre ;  broken  seed,  10.2  bushels. 


MOWER  WITH  PEA-LIFTING  ATTACHMENT  FOR 
CUTTER  BAR. 

This  covered  a  test  of  six  years.  Ward7  declares 
that  soaking  pea  seed  in  pure  water  tends  to  dissolve 
materials  needed  in  the  germination  and  growth 
of  the  seed.  He  recommends  soaking  in  a  solution 
of  some  fertilizer  salt,  which  will  add  to,  rather  than 
detract  from,  the  vigor  of  the  seed.  Electricity  in 


8  Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Annual  Rpt.  for  1906. 
7E.  S.  R.,  Vol  ii. 


2O  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

the  soil  has  a  favorable  action  on  the  crop,  one  in- 
stance being  recorded  where  the  yield  on  the  peas 
was  double.  Electricity  was  provided  by  means  of 
upright  rods  placed  in  the  ground  and  a  network 
of  wire  connecting  them  below,  in  the  soil. 

Cultivation. — No  after-cultivation  is  expected 
when  field  peas  are  broadcasted  in  the  usual  cus- 
tom of  growing  field  peas.  However,  in  case  land 
is  badly  infested  with  weeds  or  grass,  drilling  in 
rows  is  sometimes  practiced  so  that  cultivation  can 
be  given  to  destroy  foul  growth.  Soil  moisture 
has  an  important  relation  to  cultivation,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  conclusion  of  King8  on  the 
amount  of  water  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
dry  matter.  For  peas  it  required  477  pounds  of 
water  to  produce  one  pound  dry  matter.  This  may 
be  compared  with  564  pounds  for  clover,  301  pounds 
for  corn,  375  pounds  for  barley,  and  515  pounds  for 
oats. 

If  cultivation  is  resorted  to  it  should  be  shallow. 
Experiments  by  Rotmistrov9  were  conducted  to 
show  the  vertical  and  lateral  distribution  of  roots. 
The  season's  average  growth  of  peas  was  92  centi- 
meters10 vertically,  and  104  centimeters  laterally. 
Corn  roots  measured  113  centimeters  vertically  and 
134  laterally,  while  rye  grew  118  and  60 
respectively. 

Harvesting. — Harvest  field  peas  when  the  ma- 
jority of  the  pods  have  matured  and  when  vines  are 
beginning  to  turn  yellow.  The  scythe  is  sometimes 
used  to  mow  the  peas,  in  which  case  they  are  later 


8Wis.  Exper.  Sta.  Annual  Rpt.,  1892. 

9  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  20. 

10  A  centimeter  is  slightly  over  one-third  of  an  inch. 


CULTURAL    PRINCIPLES HARVEST 


21 


bunched  and  eventually  taken  to  the  barn  or 
thrasher,  or  possibly  fed  to  stock.  Occasionally, 
horse  rakes  have  been  used  to  pull  the  vines,  but 
this  is  inclined  to  shell  them  badly,  even  though 
raking-  is  done  when  vines  are  damp.  If  hogs  are 


A  PEA  AND  BEAN   HULLER,   OR  THRASHER. 

to   follow   the   harvester   the   loss    will   not   be   so 
great. 

The  approved  method  of  harvesting  peas  is  with 
a  mowing  machine.  Green  peas  for  canneries  are 
sometimes  harvested  with  a  special  machine,  some- 
thing similar  to  a  reaper.  When  mowing  machine 
is  used  a  special  attachment  consisting  of  long 
finger  guards  is  placed  on  the  cutter  bar  of  the  mow- 
ing machine  and  lifts  the  vines  from  the  ground, 
when  they  are  cut  off  readily  by  the  knives.  One 
or  two  men  can  follow  the  mower  and  bunch  the 


22  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

peas.  Three  men  and  a  team  can  harvest  ten  acres 
a  day,  under  favorable  conditions.  Some  growers 
provide  a  homemade  table,  something  similar  to 
that  on  a  reaper,  for  vines  to  run  back  on  to,  and 
then  one  man  follows  with  a  rake  and  pulls  them 
off  in  bunches. 

If  peas  are  well  matured  when  harvested,  the 
curing  will  be  simple,  unless  very  rainy  weather 
prevails.  In  this  event  it  is  well  to  keep  bunches 
turned  to  prevent  molding  and  sprouting  of  those 
on  the  bottom.  Peas  can  be  hauled  direct  to  the 
thrasher  or  to  the  barn  and  can  even  be  stacked 
satisfactorily.  In  the  latter  event  be  sure  to  pro- 
vide a  suitable  covering  of  hay,  meadow  grass,  or 
something  of  that  character,  on  top  of  the  stack  to 
protect  against  rains.  The^  coarseness  of  pea  vines 
makes  it  very  easy  for  rain  to  soak  through  if  not 
carefully  topped  out  with  suitable  material.  It 
is  well  to  remember  this  when  stacking  the  pea 
straw  outside,  to  be  used  later  for  stock.  Some 
farmers  do  not  take  the  trouble  of  harvesting  the 
crop  with  a  machine,  but  turn  in  the  hogs  and  let 
them  clean  up  the  peas. 

Thrashing. — This  may  be  done  either  with  stock, 
with  a  flail,  or  with  a  machine.  The  latter  is  the 
approved  method,  especially  in  a  large  way.  The 
vines  are  simply  run  through  a  machine  very  sim- 
ilar to  a  grain  separator,  only  that  the  cylinder  is 
specially  constructed.  The  cylinder  should  be  run 
slowly  to  avoid  cracking.  If  peas  are  to  be  fed 
to  stock,  this  is  not  so  important.  Quereau11  de- 
scribes a  pea  and  bean  thrasher  which  does  good 


Tenn.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  79. 


CULTURAL    PRINCIPLES HARVEST  23 

work.  It  resembles  the  ordinary  grain  separator  in 
general  makeup,  but  the  distinctive  differences  are 
large,  knife-edge  cylinder  teeth  and  notched  sharp- 
edged  concave  teeth.  He  states  that  in  tests  which 
included  200  bushels  and  represented  eight  varieties, 
and  with  the  vines  in  all  degrees  of  toughness  and 
stages  of  curing,  a  surprisingly  high  percentage  of 
separation  resulted.  There  are  regular  pea  hullers 
on  the  market  that  do  fine  work. 

In  a  small  way  peas  can  be  effectively  thrashed 
on  the  barn  floor  with  a  flail  or  by  stock  being* 
turned  in  to  tread  the  seed  from  the  pods.  In  either 
event  a  layer  of  pea  vines  is  distributed  on  the  floor 
and  contact  of  flail  or  stock  with  the  pods  causes 
them  to  split  open  and  free  the  seed.  One  or  two 
turnings  of  each  layer  is  recommended.  Later  the 
floor  can  be  cleaned  up  and  the  product  run  through 
a  fanning  mill.  Old  line  farmers  state  that  this 
method  of  thrashing  will  result  in  far  less  breaking 
of  seed. 

Yields. — Naturally  the  yield  of  peas  varies  much, 
running  from  five  to  40  bushels  to  the  acre.  Zavitz 
and  Lochhead12  found  that  in  setting  peas  at  differ- 
ent dates  between  April  18  and  May  23,  the  average 
yield  for  the  former  date  was  21  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  for  the  latter  nine  bushels.  There  was  an 
average  increased  yield  in  30  experiments  of  one 
and  one-third  bushels  to  the  acre  from  seeding  peas 
in  hills  rather  than  broadcasting.  The  same  author- 
ity reports  a  trial  of  47  varieties  of  peas  sown  in 
drills  one  link  apart.  Yields  varied  from  14^  bush- 
els to  33  bushels  to  the  acre.  Chancellor  matured 


12  Ont.  Agri.  Col.,  Bui.  126. 


24  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

first  and  Oakshott  Field  last,  there  being  a  difference 
of  24  days  in  the  ripening  period  of  the  two  varie- 
ties. The  best  average  yields  for  seven  years  ranged 
from  33  to  38  bushels  per  acre  and  were  produced 
by  White  Wonder,  Early  Briton,  Mummy,  Brown 
and  Blue.  All,  excepting  Early  Briton  and  Mummy, 
are  New  Zealand  varieties.  In  another  trial  with 
New  Canada  Beauty  and  Common  Globe  Vine, 
yields  varied  from  23  to  38  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
the  average  weight  per  bushel  was  59.4  pounds  for 
whole  peas.  Weevil  peas  varied  in  weight  from  38 
to  52  pounds  and  usually  the  smaller  the  peas  the 
greater  amount  of  injury  was  done  by  weevils.  The 
best  yielding  varieties  for  the  whole  province  of 
Ontario  averaged  upwards  of  25  bushels  to  the  acre, 
and  were  Egyptian  Mummy,  Chancellor,  Prussian 
Blue,  Striped  Briton,  Canadian  Beauty,  and  Canada 
Cluster. 

Chapman13  reports  yields  on  light  sandy  soil  rang- 
ing from  8  to  13  bushels  to  the  acre  in  1896.  In 
1898,  on  bottom  land,  underlaid  with  clay,  the  yield 
was  15  to  28  bushels  to  the  acre. 


Minn.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  81,  p.  181. 


CHAPTER  IV 
COMPOSITION  AND  FEEDING  VALUE 

Peas  carry  a  large  supply  of  protein,  therefore 
should  be  combined  carefully  with  carbohydrates 
and  fats  to  form  balanced  rations.  The  protein  in 
peas  is  not  as  completely  digestible  as  the  proteins 
of  rice  and  cereal,  although  they  supply  just  about 
the  same  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  as  do 
beans.  Moore1  states  that  the  average  amount  of 
digestible  protein  taken  from  an  average  crop  of 
one  acre  peas  equals  192  pounds,  while  corn  would 
supply  only  156  pounds  protein  from  the  same 
area,  barley  102,  and  oats  72  pounds. 

Composition. — Legumin  forms  the  chief  protein 
constituent  in  peas.  It  is  closely  associated  with 
vicilin.  Some  investigators  have  supposed  that 
legumin  carried  a  little  phosphorus,  but  Osborne 
and  Campbell2  were  able  to  find  only  slight  traces 
of  phosphorus  in  some  samples,  while  others 
showed  no  trace  whatever.  The  same  authorities 
gave  a  very  comprehensive  report  of  the  action  of 
legumin,  its  manner  of  precipitation,  etc.  They 
show  that  legumin  carries  5.17  per  cent  carbon,  6.9 
per  cent  hydrogen,  18  per  cent  nitrogen,  .42  per  cent 
s.ulphur,  22.9  per  cent  oxygen. 

Vicilin  is  a  globulin  associated  with  legumin  in 
the  pea,  the  lentil,  and  the  horse  bean.  The  strik- 
ing characteristic  of  it  is  its  content  of  sulphur, 

1  Wis.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  178,  for  July,  1909. 

2  Ct.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.  for  1897. 


26  PEAS   AND    PEA    CULTURE 

being  less  than  any  other  known  protein.  Its  com- 
position is  reported  by  Osborne  and  Campbell3  as 
follows :  32  per  cent  carbon,  7  per  cent  hydrogen,  17 
per  cent  nitrogen,  .18  per  cent  sulphur  and  23  per 
cent  oxygen.  Legumelin  is  also  found  in  peas.  The 
composition  of  peas  varies  slightly  with  the  size  of 
grain,  with  particular  reference  to  nitrogen  con- 
tent. 

The  accompanying  table,  secured  from  analyses 
made  by  G.  W.  Cavanaugh  of  Cornell  experiment 
station,  New  York,  affords  specific  data  as  to  the 
composition  of  seed,  straw,  silage,  peas  and  oats, 
and  pea  meal. 

COMPOSITION  OF  PEAS 

Digestible  nutrients  % 


Dry  |Carbo-        Ether 

matter  %     Protein      hydrates      extract 

Pea   seed   89.5  16.8  51.8  .7 

Pea-vine  straw 86.4  4.3  32.3  .8 

Pea-vine   silage 27.2  4.71  n.o  .5 

Peas  and  oats  (green)—  16.0  1.8  7.1  .2 
Pea-hull    meal    (residue 

from  split  peas) 89.8  15.9  36.3  .9 

Pea  Meal. — According  to  Gamble4  pea  meal  had 
an  average  composition  of  10.34  per  cent  water, 
23.27  per  cent  protein,  1.9  per  cent  fat,  54.62  per 
cent  nitrogen  free  extract,  7  per  cent  crude  fiber,  and 
2.83  per  cent  ash.  The  same  authority  gives  the 
average  composition  of  pea  hulls  as  7.51  per  cent 
water,  10  per  cent  protein,  1.44  per  cent  fat,  36  per 
cent  nitrogen  free  extract,  42  per  cent  crude  fiber, 
and  2.92  per  cent  ash. 


3Ct.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.  for  1897. 

*Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Farm,  Bui.  138,  p.  32. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FEEDING   VALUE  2? 

Composition  Compared  with  Other  Feedstuffs. — 

Moore3  gives  the  following  table  showing  the  com- 
parative composition  of  peas  with  other  common 
feedstuffs.  The  table  indicates  peas  as  being  far 
the  highest  in  protein  content.  This  is  of  signifi- 
cance to  the  feeder,  inasmuch  as  protein  is  the  most 
expensive  food  element.  Pea  straw  has  a  greater 
feeding  value  than  barley  or  oat  straw  and  compares 
favorably  with  clover  and  timothy  hay.  It  is 
especially  valuable  as  a  feed  for  sheep.  The  table 
follows : 

PEAS    COMPARED    WITH    OTHER    FOODS 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 


Peas: 

Grain 

Protein      Cz 
Ibs. 

16.8 

trbohydrate  s 
Ibs. 

51.8 
32-3 

66.7 
32-4 

65.6 
41.2 

47-3 
38.6 
35-8 

J.3.4. 

Fat 
Ibs. 

0.7 
.8 

4-3 
•7 

1.6 
.6 

4.2 
.8 

1-7 

i.j. 

Straw 

A.<1 

Corn  : 
Grain 

7.0 

Stover 

1.7 

Barley: 
Grain 

8-7 

Straw 

.7 

Oats: 
Grain 

Q.2 

Straw 

1.2 

Clover  Hay               

.     _             6.8 

Timothv   Hav   _ 

2.8 

Nutritive  Value. — Zuntz  and  Hagemann6  report 
an  interesting  experiment  to  determine  the  nutritive 
value  of  a  kilogram  of  different  feeding  stuffs.  The 
comparison  is  given  herewith : 


BWis.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  178. 
6E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  ii. 


COMPOSITION    AND    FEEDING   VALUE 


29 


NUTRITIVE    VALUE   DETERMINED 

&    Labor  expended         True 

in  chewing  nutritive 
n                   IB       and  digestion  value 


p  eeamg  sum 

* 

fa 
ti 

•3  a 

*o  . 

Ofl 

*fe 

"8  S3 

a 

0> 

^  hD 

|« 

|B 

IT.  V 

E? 

ft 

I 

ll 

all 

M.Sa> 

flSl 

^Si 

Jl 

M4»  O 

% 

Grama 

Grams 

Calories 

Grami 

Calories 

Grams 

Field  Peas 

86 

69 

720 

439 

111 

2,412 

609 

Peas              

86 

59 

687 

402 

102 

2,319 

586 

Medium  hay  (Average 

quality)  

85 

260 

391 

828 

209 

721 

182 

Alfalfa  hay  cut  at  be- 

ginning of  bloom  ... 
Oats  (medium  quality) 
Maize... 

84 
87 
87 

266 
103 
17 

453 
615 

785 

866 
492 
325 

219 
124 

82 

928 
1,943 

2.784 

234 
491 
703 

Cooking  and  Digestibility. — In  general  it  is  fig- 
ured that  cooked  vegetable  foods  are  five-sixths  to 
nine-tenths  less  tough  or  resistant  than  the  raw 
foods.  Lehmann  and  Gunkel7  report  a  rather  elab- 
orate experiment  along  this  line  with  peas.  The 
relative  resistance  to  the  cutting  surface  or  tough- 
ness was  220  when  cooked  for  15  minutes,  39  when 
cooked  for  60  minutes  in  distilled  water,  and  65 
when  cooked  for  60  minutes  in  spring  water.  Rich- 
ter8  speaks  of  an  experiment  as  to  the  digestibility 
by  man  of  peas  cooked  in  soft  and  in  hard  water. 
Peas  cooked  in  distilled  water  were  better  borne 
and  caused  less  digestive  disturbance  than  others. 
When  cooked  in  distilled  water  peas  had  the  follow- 
ing coefficients  and  digestibility:  Dry  matter  92, 
protein  89,  fat  87,  and  ash  81.  When  cooked  in 
hard  water  the  coefficients  were:  Dry  matter  91, 
protein  33,  fat  58,  and  ash  51. 

Further   digestive  experiments  are   reported   by 


TE.  s.  R.,  Vol.  19. 

8E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  15. 


3O  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

Lindsey.9  Some  40  experiments  covering  a  period 
of  three  years  are  tabulated  and  given  in  the  accom- 
panying table  : 

COEFFICIENTS  OF  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  DIFFERENT 
FEEDING  STUFFS 

g_03  p,  -U 

Kind  of  feedstuff  |1      *I      1  « 

^^       «« 5        2         te         t?          fi        an 
fc^      QS       PH         h         w          fe        <1 

Hay  (largely  Poa  Pratensis) 6  62  61  50  63  65  46 

Do 4  60  68  53  61  60  50 

Average  both  samples 10  61  60  51  62  63  48 

Hay  of  mixed  grasses  (late  cut)  2  53  54  39  54  56  26 

Do.... 2  57  55  44  57  59  42 

Barnyard  millet  hay  (late  blos- 
som)   3  57  64  46  52  62  63 

Barnyard  millet  (green  in  blos- 
som)   2  74  68  64  76  74  66 

Barnyard    millet    (green,   week 

later  than  above) 1  67  72  61  65  71  61 

Peas  and  oats  (green  in  blossom)  3  70  70  57  76  68  49 

Vetchandoats 3  67  75  47  68  68  49 

Corn  silage  (Pride  of  North) ....  2  74  45  77  82  80  26 

Hominymeal 1  89  53  94  94 

Feeding  Value. — Peas  are  fed  successfully  in 
various  forms  to  practically  all  kinds  of  live  stock. 
They  are  rich  in  muscle,  bone  and  blood-making 
constituents.  They  are,  therefore,  particularly 
adapted  to  young  growing  animals  or  even  animals 
at  work.  In  the  early  stages  of  fattening  of  all  farm 
animals  before  full  maturity  of  animal  is  reached, 
there  is  no  better  grain  ration  than  peas.  Mix  peas 
with  ground  oats,  shorts,  or  wheat  bran  in  propor- 
tion of  one-third  to  one-half  and  you  have  an  ideal 
ration  for  brood  sows,  milch  cows,  ewes  in  milk, 
lambs  and  horses.  Peas  need  not  be  ground  for 
sheep,  poultry  and  hogs.  Neither  need  they  be 
thrashed,  as  these  animals  can  do  that  for  them- 
selves. 


'Mass.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1898. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FEEDING   VALUE  3! 

Pea  straw  is  valuable  and  relished  by  sheep, 
horses  and  cattle.  When  vines  are  cut  while  a  little 
green  and  carefully  cured  without  being  drenched 
with  rain  they  will  be  nearly  as  good  as  clover  in 
feeding  value.  Pea  silage  is  valuable,  as  well  as  the 
fresh  product  cut  green  and  brought  direct  to  the 
stock  in  the  form  of  forage.  In  the  latter  event  it  is 
usually  customary  to  sow  peas  with  oats  or  barley. 
More  will  be  found  concerning  this  subject  in  the 
special  chapter  on  Peas  as  Forage  and  Soiling  Crop.- 

Peas  for  Cows. — In  foreign  countries,  notably 
Scotland,  peas  are  regarded  highly  as  a  grain  ration 
for  cows.  In  America  their  use  is  limited.  This 
refers  to  the  grain  crop,  but  when  it  comes  to  mix- 
tures of  peas  with  other  crops  to  be  used  in  the 
green  state  for  dairy  cows,  American  farmers  prize 
the  combination  highly.  Hills10  speaks  of  pea  and 
oat  hay  not  being  relished  by  milch  cows.  How- 
ever, when  eaten,  the  hay  proved  decidedly  better, 
pound  for  pound  than  any  other  fodder  used. 
Snyder11  reports  experiments  with  milch  cows  of  the 
digestibility  of  a  ration  of  pea  silage  and  wheat  bran. 
Peas  were  cut  while  green  and  placed  in  the  silo 
and  opened  the  following  March.  The  silage  was 
sweet  and  in  good  condition  and  was  generally  rel- 
ished by  cows,  especially  when  mixed  with  bran  or 
corn.  A  ration  consisting  of  34  pounds  pea  silage 
and  12  pounds  wheat  bran  gave  satisfactory  results. 

Day12  gives  a  comparison  of  green  oats  and  peas 
with  oats  and  tares  for  milch  cows.  The  seed  was 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  two  bushels  oats  to  one 


30  Third  Annual  Rpt.  of  Vt.  Exper.  Sta.,  pp.  51-84. 

11  Minn.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  26. 

12Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.  for  1897,  pp.  84-85. 


32  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

of  peas,  and  two  bushels  oats  to  one  bushel  tares. 
Both  fodders  were  eaten  readily  and  neither  could 
be  said  to  excel  the  other  as  a  milk  producer.  The 
oats  and  peas  yielded  at  the  rate  of  14,760  pounds 
green  fodder  to  the  acre,  and  oats  and  tares  yielded 
14,688  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Neale13  compared  results  of  dairy  value  of  pea 
vine  silage  with  June  pasture.  The  cows  received 
a  ration  of  25  pounds  pea  vine  silage  and  six  pounds 
hay.  In  June  the  animals  were  turned  to  pasture 
and  the  grain  ration  remained  the  same.  The 
change  from  silage  to  pasture  indicated  a  possible 
gain  of  one-half  pound  butter  per  cow  per  week. 
The  relative  cost  of  silage  and  pasture  showed 
about  $2.91  per  acre  in  favor  of  pasture. 

Peas  for  Steers. — In  either  a  whole  or  ground 
state  peas  are  used  extensively  for  feeding  steers  in 
Canada  and  parts  of  the  United  States.  Canadian 
experiments14  indicate  that  peas  are  slightly  inferior 
to  corn  for  fattening  steers.  In  the  experiment, 
corn,  barley,  and  oats  gave  better  results  than  did 
peas,  barley,  and  oats.  It  is  believed  the  results 
are  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  individuality  of 
the  steers. 

Peas  for  Sheep  and  Lambs. — Field  peas  form  an 
admirable  ration  for  growing  lambs.  They  are 
relished  by  sheep  and  make  the  finest  of  mutton. 

Day15  found  that  the  cost  of  food  per  pound  of 
gain  was  6.63  cents  when  peas  and  oats  were  fed 
lambs,  and  only  5.79  cents  when  fed  corn  and  oats. 
This  was  based  on  peas  at  48  cents  and  corn  at 


"Del   Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  46,  pp.  9-12. 

14  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  ii. 

"Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.  for  1898,  pp.  81-82. 


COMPOSITION    AND    FEEDING   VALUE  33 

38  cents  a  bushel,  with  hay  at  $6  a  ton.  The  value 
of  corn  and  peas  includes  cost  of  grinding. 

Ramm16  conducted  experiments  to  determine  the 
effect  of  pea  meal  and  sunflower  seed  cake  on  the 
quality  of  fat,  flesh,  and  wool  of  sheep.  Merino 
sheep  made  10  per  cent  higher  gains  than  English 
sheep.  They  also  produced  more  wool  than  others. 
Gains  made  with  pea  meal  were  about  2.2  per  cent 
better,  and  the  results  of  slaughter  tests  were  about 
6.54  per  cent  better  than  in  the  case  of  sunflower 
seed  cake.  Sheep  fed  pea  meal  showed  more  belly 
fat,  the  flesh  containing  more  dry  matter  and  more 
nitrogen.  Morton17  found  that  peas  grazed  off 
showed  returns  approximately  equaling  the  returns 
from  feeding  alfalfa  and  corn,  with  the  peas  valued 
at  $8  an  acre,  alfalfa  at  $5  a  ton,  and  corn  at  $i  per 
100  pounds.  This  although  alfalfa  and  corn  lambs 
gained  about  one-half  more  than  pea  lambs.  Dur- 
ing shipment  the  lambs  fed  corn  and  alfalfa  shrank 
4.2  per  cent  per  head  more  than  the  pea-fed  lambs. 

Peas  for  Swine. — Mills18  conducted  an  elaborate 
experiment  using  wheat,  peas,  corn,  and  barley  in 
producing  pork.  Four  lots  of  three  pigs  each  were 
in  the  test,  and  in  about  five  months  the  lot  of  pigs 
receiving  peas  and  bran  made  the  most  rapid  gain 
and  the  largest  gain  for  the  food  consumed.  The 
wheat  mixture  came  second,  followed  by  corn  and 
barley.  Wheat  and  bran  proved  the  cheapest  food. 
Another  test  with  12  Berkshire  boars  showed  that 
hogs  fed  peas  and  bran  made  the  largest  gain  as 
well  as  the  best  gain  for  the  food  consumed.  How- 


18  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  10. 

17  Wyo.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  73,  p.  18. 

18  Utah  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  34,  pp.  8-10. 


34  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

ever,  at  ruling  prices,  the  lot  receiving  wheat  made 
the  cheapest  gain.  Deducting  the  cost  of  bran  and 
allowing  4  cents  a  pound  live  weight  for  pork,  the 
following  prices  per  bushel  were  realized  through 
feeding:  Wheat  89  cents,  peas  $1.02,  corn  70  cents, 
barley  59  cents. 

Shaw  and  Zavitz19  tried  out  three  lots  of  pigs, 
feeding  peas,  barley,  ground  oats,  and  wheat 
middlings  in  various  combinations.  The  test  con- 
tinued for  91  days  and  the  best  gain  was  made  on 
a  ration  of  two  parts  peas  and  one  part  of  ground 
barley,  grain,  oats,  and  wheat  middlings.  The  next 
best  gain  was  with  a  ration  of  equal  parts  peas 
and  barley  ground.  The  third  lot  was  fed  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  peas  and  barley  unground,  and 
the  least  gain  was  made.  Experiments  demon- 
strated the  advantage  of  feeding  ground  peas  and 
barley  to  pigs  rather  than  unground.  The  Wiscon- 
sin experiment  station  found  that  ground  field  peas 
are  more  valuable  for  pork  production  than  corn 
meal.  However,  corn  was  so  much  lower  in  price 
than  peas  that  the  meal  formed  a  cheaper  feed.  The 
thigh  bones  of  pigs  fed  on  peas  were  26  per  cent 
stronger  than  corn-fed  pigs.  As  an  exclusive  grain 
ration  pea  meal  is  unsatisfactory.  Peas  contain 
large  amounts  of  protein  and  will  produce  much 
lean  meat  in  hogs.  They  should  be  ground  or 
soaked  and  fed  with  corn  meal  or  some  lighter  feed. 
Sown  with  oats  or  barley  peas  make  an  excellent 
forage  crop  or  pasture  for  hogs. 

Peas  for  Horses  and  Chickens. — Working  horses 
thrive  on  peas.  A  ration  of  eight  parts  peas,  eight 


19Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.,  1891,  pp.  106-133. 


COMPOSITION    AND   FEEDING   VALUE  35 

parts  corn,  and  one  part  flaxseed  ground  together, 
makes  a  fine  ration  for  horses.  Sometimes  there  is 
a  tendency  to  constipation,  but  the  flaxseed  will  tend 
to  correct  that.  Peas,  either  cracked  or  whole,  can 
be  fed  poultry  with  good  results,  either  for  egg  or 
meat  production.  Be  sure  that  this  is  used  in  com- 
bination with  something  else,  as  the  chickens  will 
do  poorly  if  given  the  peas  as  a  regular  diet. 

Robertson20  tested  sugar  beets  and  pea  silage  for 
fattening  hogs.  Two  lots  of  eight  pigs  averaging 
60  pounds  in  weight  received  a  mixture  of  ground 
peas,  barley  and  rye,  with  sugar  beets  and  pea 
silage  respectively.  To  one-half  of  each  lot  the 
grain  was  fed  steamed  and  the  other  half  raw.  Pea 
silage  was  made  from  peas  harvested  when  the 
pods  were  full  of  peas  still  soft,  the  vines  being 
green  and  succulent.  The  silage  kept  well,  but  pigs 
refused  to  eat  much  of  it.  The  results  showed  no 
striking  differences  between  the  gains  on  pea  silage 
and  on  sugar  beet  rations,  or  between  the  amounts 
of  cooked  and  raw  food  consumed  per  pound  of 
gain. 


20  Canada  Experimental  Farm  Rpt.  for  1891,  pp.  83-87. 


CHAPTER  V 
INSECT  AND  FUNGOUS  PESTS 

There  are  two  classes  of  pests  which  the  grower 
of -peas  must  be  prepared  to  combat:  insect  and 
fungous.  They  are  more  troublesome  some  seasons 
than  others,  also  in  some  sections  more  than  others, 
and  even  some  varieties  of  peas  are  more  suscepti- 
ble than  others.  There  are  three  leading  insect 
pests  of  the  pea,  namely,  the  weevil,  the  moth, 
and  the  louse,  or  aphis.  There  are  several  fungous 
pests  which  may  assert  themselves  under  favorable 
conditions. 

Pea  Weevil  (Bruchus  pisi),  much  resembles  the 
bean  weevil,  and  the  life  history  is  similar.  The 
beetle  is  brownish  gray  color,  with  two  conspicuous 


PEA   WEEVIL  AND   INFECTED  PEA. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.) 

oval  black  dots  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which 
are  not  entirely  concealed  by  the  wing  covers.    The 

36 


INSECT   AND   FUNGOUS  PESTS  37 

beetle  is  about  one-fifth  to  one-half  inch  in  length, 
with  the  head  bent  under  the  front  of  the  body  and 
ending  in  a  square-cut  beak.  When  peas  blossom 
these  miserable  insects  may  be  found  upon  them 
waiting  for  the  young  pod  to  develop.  On  the  pod 
the  eggs  are  deposited  and  the  grubs  as  soon  as 
hatched  bore  through  and  enter  the  small  green 
peas,  one  beetle  only  infesting  a  single  pea.  The 
grub  remains  in  the  pea,  feeding  upon  its  substance, 
and  passes  into  the  pupal  stage,  gaining  maturity 
when  peas  are  ripe.  Most  of  the  beetles  remain 
inside  the  peas  until  sown  the  following  spring, 
although  some  emerge  at  harvest  and  remain  in 
the  field  or  in  the  barn  all  winter.  Unlike  bean 
weevils,  the  pea  weevil  does  not  increase  and  mul- 
tiply in  stored  peas,  but  will  die  if  kept  over  another 
year. 

Fletcher1  discusses  the  question  whether  pea 
weevil  can  be  exterminated.  He  argues  that  since 
the  weevil  has  no  other  food  plant  than  the  com- 
mon pea  it  could  probably  be  exterminated  by  inter- 
rupting the  cultivation  of  the  crop  for  one  or  two 
years,  or  by  thoroughly  fumigating  the  seed  peas. 
There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  either  plan,  and 
the  author  recommends  harvesting  peas  a  little  ear- 
lier in  the  fall  and  immediately  thrashing  and  sack- 
ing them  so  as  to  prevent  escape  of  beetles  in  the 
field.  Then  treat  all  the  seed  peas  with  bisulphide 
of  carbon.  Weevil-infested  peas  used  as  seed  will 
give  very  unsatisfactory  results. 

Zavitz2  found  that  only  about  one-fourth  of  the 
seed  infested  with  weevil  grew.  In  treating  the  in- 


1 E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  14. 

2  Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Rpt.  of  1898,  pp.  144-148. 


38  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

fested  seed  with  carbon  bisulphide,  put  in  a  tight 
barrel  or  bin,  and  pour  on  one  ounce  for  every  100 
pounds.  Then  close  the  receptacle  tightly  and 
leave  for  48  hours.  Remains  of  the  pea  crop  not 
taken  from  the  field  should  be  raked  up  and  burned. 
Weevil-infested  seed  kept  for  two  years  in  tight 
bags  or  boxes  will  kill  the  insects.  Zavitz3  reports 
that  Grass  peas  proved  resistant  to  the  weevil  in 
Ontario  and  gave  a  yield  of  25  bushels  grain  to  the 
acre  and  two  tons  straw. 

Pea  Moth  (Semasia  Nigricana). — This  insect  occa- 
sionally does  considerable  damage,  although  it  is 
not  nearly  as  common  as  the  weevil.  The  matured 
moth  is  small,  perhaps  less  than  one-half  inch  in 
expanse  of  wings  and  has  a  dull  gray  color.  The 
moth  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  growing  pea  pods. 
Caterpillars  soon  hatch  out  and  eat  their  way  into 
the  pod,  feeding  upon  the  young  peas,  consuming 
many  of  them  and  filling  the  space  with  a  mass  of 
excrement.  Finally,  the  worms  leave  the  pods  and 
form  small  oval  cocoons  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

The  remedy  is  preventive.  Pea  vines  may  be 
sprayed  as  soon  as  blossoms  are  open  with  one 
pound  soap  and  25  gallons  water  in  which  has  been 
dissolved  one-fourth  pound  paris  green.  The  spray- 
ing should  be  repeated  once  or  twice  at  intervals 
of  seven  to  ten  days.  The  object  of  spraying  is  to 
kill  the  young  caterpillars  when  they  eat  their  way 
through  the  pod.  Another  precaution  is  to  plow 
the  ground  deeply  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  cocoons 
will  be  buried  and  thus  prevent  the  moths  coming 


8E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  14. 


INSECT  AND   FUNGOUS    PESTS  39 

out  in  the  spring.  All  unripe  pods  should  be  burned, 
as  they  may  contain  worms ;  and  peas  should  not  be 
grown  upon  or  near  the  same  piece  of  ground  the 
following  season  if  the  moth  is  known  to  be  in  the 
soil.  Sowing  early  varieties  as  early  as  possible  in 
the  season  has  been  found  useful,  as  pods  get  ahead 
of  the  worms.  Late  sowing  is  recommended  for  the 
opposite  reason  that  the  peas  will  mature  after  the 
worm  has  disappeared. 

Pea  Louse  (Nectar  Ophora  Destructor). — This 
pest  is  frequently  called  the  pea  aphis.  It  does 
great  damage  on  the  growing  vines  all  through  Nova 
Scotia,  Canada,  and  the  states.  It  is  particularly 
destructive  in  some  canning  sections,  where  the  an- 


PEA   MOTH    AND   CATERPILLAR;    INFECTED    PEA. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.) 

nual  loss  runs  into  the  millions  of  dollars.  These 
lice  attack  the  young  pea  vines  and  multiply  with 
great  rapidity,  often  killing  the  vines  outright.  They 
have  been  found  upon  sweet  peas.  On  a  small  scale, 
spraying  with  a  25  per  cent  solution  of  kerosene 
and  water  has  proved  effective.  Whale  oil  soap  and 
tobacco  dust  are  effective,  but  in  a  large  way  these 
remedies  are  too  expensive.  Large  numbers  are  de- 


4O  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

stroyed  by  their  insect  enemies,  which  include  the 
lady  beetle,  laced  wing  flies,  and  syrphus  flies. 
Johnson4  reports  experiments  in  planting  peas  in 
rows,  so  that  the  cultivator  and  a  brush  can  be  used 
to  knock  off  the  lice.  By  this  method  a  man  or  boy 
goes  ahead  of  the  cultivator  with  a  pine  switch  and 
brushes  the  vines  vigorously,  knocking  off  the  lice, 
and  the  cultivator  follows  and  buries  them.  This 
operation  can  be  repeated  every  three  days  during 
the  height  of  the  outbreak  of  the  pea  louse. 

Miscellaneous  Insects. — Occasional  references  are 
found  in  literature  to  damage  through  other  insects 
which  sometimes  attack  peas.  A  myriapod  belong- 
ing to  the  species  Blaniulus  guttulatus  has  been 
known  to  cause  serious  injury  to  peas  as  well  as 
beans.  The  attack  is  largely  upon  the  seed  in  the 
ground.  A  small  mite  (Notophallus  Haematopus) 
is  mentioned  by  Marchal5  as  causing  considerable 
injury  to  peas  in  central  France.  A  four-spotted 
pea  weevil  (Bruchus  Gudri-maculatus)  is  described 
by  Osborn  and  Malley.6  Experiments  were  con- 
ducted in  treating  seed  with  carbon  bisulphide  and 
to  note  the  possible  effect  upon  the  germination  of 
the  seed.  The  seed  containing  larvae,  pupae  and 
the  newly  formed  adults  were  not  all  destroyed  by 
the  treatment.  To  be  most  effective  they  recom- 
mend two  or  three  applications  about  three  or  four 
weeks  apart.  The  germinating  power  of  the  seed 
was  not  affected  in  any  perceptible  degree  by  the 
fumes  of  the  carbon.  On  the  other  hand  Bolle7  says 


4E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  12. 

BE.  S.  R.,  Vol.  20. 

6  la.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  32,  p.  361. 

7E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  1 6. 


INSECT   AND    FUNGOUS    PESTS  41 

the  germination  of  peas  and  doubtless  other  legu- 
minous seed  is  lowered  by  10  days'  exposure  to  car- 
bon bisulphide  fumes.  Trybom8  states  that  the  pea 
was  attacked  by  a  number  of  species  of  the 
physopoda.  He  mentions  particularly  physopos 
robusta,  which  attacks  the  field  as  well  as  the  garden 
pea. 

Pea  Blight  or  Leaf  Spot  (Ascochyta  Pisi). — This 
is  the  most  prominent  fungous  disease  to  which  peas 
are  heir,  which  corresponds  to  the  anthracnose  of 
the  bean.  Discolored  areas  of  dead  tissue  are  noted 
on  the  pea  stems.  The  attack  is  usually  more  pro- 
nounced near  the  ground.  The  leaves  are  also  at- 
tacked and  show  round  or  oval  discolored  spots 
from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  On 
the  pods  the  disease  appears  as  sunken  spots  like 
those  of  bean  anthracnose,  only  paler  in  color. 
The  fungus  works  through  the  pod  and  on  to  the 
seed,  thus  infecting  it. 

The  treatment  starts  with  planting  seed  free 
from  the  disease.  This  can  be  guaranteed  by  select- 
ing pods  that  are  free  from  the  trouble,  or  by  getting 
seed  from  sections  where  the  disease  is  not  preva- 
lent. Spraying  with  bordeaux,  beginning  when 
plants  are  from  four  to  ten  inches  high  and  repeat- 
ing at  intervals  of  four  to  five  days,  will  do  much 
toward  controlling  the  disease.  In  a  large  way  this 
would  not  be  practical.  Sturgis9  gives  it  as  his 
opinion  that  fungous  attack  is  not  primarily  above 
ground,  but  that  it  may  be  present  in  the  seed.  In 
addition  to  planting  clean  seed  he  urges  that  grow- 
ers avoid  planting  on  land  where  peas  have  not  been 

8  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  ii. 

°Ct.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.  for  1899,  p.  277. 


42  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

grown  for  a  number  of  years.  As  soon  as  the  crop 
is  harvested  all  vines  should  be  gathered  and 
burned. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Erysiphe  Polygoni). — This  usu- 
ally appears  late  in  the  season,  is  of  a  superficial 
nature,  and  readily  detected  through  its  whitish  or 
grayish  coating.  The  mildew  may  appear  on  any 
part  of  the  plant  above  ground.  In  the  mature 
state  the  minute  black  fruiting  bodies  may  be  found 
scattered  about  the  mildew  surface.  Halsted10 
speaks  of  soil  treatments  with  sulphur,  corrosive 
sublimate,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  copper  sulphate 
for  the  prevention  primarily  of  stem  blight.  On  the 
second  crop  of  peas  mildew  was  quite  abundant, 
but  it  did  not  materially  injure  the  crop.  Vines 
sprayed  with  bordeaux  had  less  mildew  than  others, 
but  stem  blight  was  not  materially  lessened.  The 
most  satisfactory  treatment  for  mildew  is  probably 
the  use  of  bordeaux. 

Root  Rot  Fungus  (Thiclavia  Vasicola).— Paddock11 
declares  the  pea  root  disease  is  very  destructive. 
His  attention  was  first  called  to  it  in  September, 
1900.  During  the  following  winter,  soil  from  in- 
fected fields  was  secured  and  greenhouse  experi- 
ments conducted.  Plants  in  the  soil  were  nearly 
always  attacked  by  fungi  on  the  roots  and  stems 
below  ground.  In  his  opinion  the  fungus  belongs 
to  genus  Rhizoctonia.  He  recommends  the  use  of 
corrosive  sublimate  treatment  of  seed  as  a  remedy. 

Miscellaneous  Pea  Fungi. — Van  Hall12  speaks  of 
a  disease  of  the  pea  due  to  attacks  of  fungus  called 


10  N.  J.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1896,  p.  314. 

11  Col.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  69,  p.  23. 

12  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  15. 


INSECT  AND   FUNGOUS   PESTS  43 

Fusarium  basinfectum.  It  has  been  known  in  Hol- 
land for  a  number  of  years.  Infected  plants  turn 
yellow  and  soon  die.  Investigation  shows  that  the 
roots  are  the  seat  of  the  fungous  attack.  His  investi- 
gation leads  him  to  believe  that  the  fungus  is  close- 
ly related  to  that  which  causes  wilt  of  melons,  cot- 
ton, cowpeas,  etc.  Masserson13  gives  an  account  of 
Sclerotium  disease  of  peas  and  beans  which  is  due  to 
the  fungus  Chlerotinia  libertana.  The  disease  was 
especially  destructive  in  certain  regions  of  France 
in  the  spring  of  1907.  Its  usual  development  is  said 
to  be  due  to  intensive  culture  of  peas,  the  crop  being 
frequently  grown  successively  on  the  same  soil. 
Then,  too,  the  favorable  conditions  of  humidity  and 
temperature  are  a  consideration.  Rotation  of  crops 
is  recommended  as  a  preventive.  In  addition  the 
debris  of  all  diseased  plants  should  be  collected  and 
burned. 


13  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  19. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  CANNED   PEA  INDUSTRY 

Peas  were  among  the  first  vegetables  to  be  pre- 
served by  canning,  and  the  practice  is  as  old  as  is 
the  canning  industry  itself.  The  invention  of  the 
tin  can  gave  the  enterprise  marked  impetus,  owing 
to  the  reduced  cost  of  production.  In  America,  the 
pea-canning  industry  had  its  birth  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  in  the  early  fifties.  The  pea-podding  machine, 
as  invented  in  France,  in  1883,  and  duplicated  in 
America  in  1889,  and  further  perfected  during  the 
next  half  dozen  years,  revolutionized  the  industry. 
By  means  of  this  machine  one  person  could  do  the 
work  of  100  or  more  people  in  removing  the  peas 
from  the  pods.  After  improvements  of  1893,  the 
device  was  known  as  the  "  vining  machine."  This 
machine  does  away  with  people  going  through  the 
fields  and  picking  the  pods,  as  the  viner  hulls  the 
green  peas  direct  from  the  vines. 

As  generally  known,  the  northeastern  and  north 
central  states  grow  most  of  the  peas  for  canning 
purposes.  Wisconsin  and  New  York  are  the  big 
leaders,  these  two  states  producing  perhaps  nearly 
half  the  entire  pack  of  the  country.  However,  In- 
diana, Michigan,  Maryland  and  Illinois  are  liberal 
producers.  The  accompanying  data1  shows  the 
pack  for  the  United  States  in  1907: 

1  Canner  and  Dried  Fruit  Packer,  December  26,  1907. 

44 


THE    CANNED    PEA    INDUSTRY  45 

PEAS    CANNED    DURING    1907,    BY    STATES 

Cases  Cases 

California    9°>45Q  Minnesota    25,750 

Colorado,  Idaho,  Utah  New  Jersey 153,564 

and  Oregon 193,018  New  York 1,659,944 

Delaware 141,046  Ohio    101,521 

Illinois    216,508  Pennsylvania    80,373 

Indiana    826,500  Virginia    15,486 

Iowa   50,000  Wisconsin    J,773,599 

Kansas   — 11,589  Other    States 3,132 

Maryland    568,393 

Michigan   595,o88  Total   U.    S 6,505,961 

The  writer  spent  several  days  in  the  big  canning 
districts  of  New  York  and  Michigan  the  season 
previous  to  writing  this  chapter.  Farmers  were  vis- 
ited and  the  various  operations  watched  from  the 
time  of  harvesting  the  peas  on  to  storing  the  canned 
peas  in  the  warehouses.  It  is  a  specialized  indus- 
try, and  one  has  to  see  the  many  devices  and  opera- 
tions in  progress  to  appreciate  its  importance. 

Varieties  Grown. — In  the  sections  visited  Alaska 
was  the  favorite  for  the  early  June  pea.  The  other 
standards  were  Telephone,  Advancer  and  Admiral. 
Farmers  were  then  receiving  $2.25  per  100  pounds 
of  green  peas,  and  the  later  sorts  ran  from  $1.75  to 
$2  per  100  pounds.  There  was  a  reduction  of  75 
cents  per  100  pounds  for  low  grade  goods.  The 
canning  establishments  have  men  on  the  road  ad- 
vising farmers  about  care  and  time  of  sending  to 
the  factory. 

Time  of  Harvesting. — This  varies  according  to 
the  section,  being  about  20  days'  duration  in  In- 
diana and  Illinois,  and  fully  six  to  eight  weeks  in 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  The  longer  period  of 
harvesting  in  the  northern  states  comes  through 


4G 


THE    CANNED   PEA    INDUSTRY  47 

successive  plantings.  Bitting2  gives  many  helpful 
pointers  on  the  canned  pea  industry.  The  average 
dates  of  harvesting  peas  as  reported  by  him  for 
various  sections  are  given  herewith : 

AVERAGE  DATES  FOR  HARVESTING  PEAS  FOR  A 

SERIES  OF  YEARS 

State  Date 

California May  20  to  June   20 

Colorado June  15  to  Aug.   15 

Delaware June     i  to  June    30 

Illinois June  10  to  July    14 

Indiana June     5  to  July    10 

Maryland May  25  to  July      i 

Michigan June  15  to  Aug.    10 

New  Jersey June     i  to  July      3 

New  York June  15  to  Aug.     i 

Ohio June     i  to  July    10 

Oregon June  10  to  July    30 

Pennsylvania June     i  to  July      i 

Utah June  10  to  July    15 

Virginia May  20  to  June    10 

Wisconsin June  15  to  Aug.   10 

Grading  the  Crop. — This  varies  with  the  section 
and  with  the  factory.  In  some  cases  the  farmer  re- 
ceives so  much  per  bushel,  which  is  not  satisfac- 
tory, inasmuch  as  it  provides  no  extra  returns  for 
the  man  who  takes  particular  care  and  has  the  peas 
young  and  tender  and  in  the  best  of  condition.  A 
better  method  is  to  take  a  sample  from  each  load 
during  the  thrashing  and  run  it  through  the  grader. 
The  grower  receives  pay  according  to  the  way  they 
separate,  the  highest  price  being  given  for  those 
which  make  the  largest  number  of  smaller  sizes. 
There  are  other  methods  of  grading  the  crop,  such 
as  letting  some  expert  look  at  each  load  as  brought 
to  the  factory.  Another  plan  is  to  take  a  sample  of 


2  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bulletin  125. 


48  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

the  peas,  shell  them,  and  place  in  a  solution  of  salt. 
If  peas  are  young  and  tender  it  is  argued  a  large 
percentage  will  float  in  a  weak  brine.  If  of  old  and 
poor  quality  they  will  sink  to  the  bottom.  The 
density  of  the  solution  can  be  varied  to  suit  the 
changing  conditions  of  varieties,  season,  etc. 

Thrashing. — The  pea  viners  separate  the  green 
peas  from  the  pods  and  vines  in  a  very  satisfactory 
way.  A  self-feeding  machine  has  been  perfected. 
The  farmer  draws  his  peas  and  vines  to  the  factory  on 
his  hay  wagon,  like  so  much  straw,  only  of  course, 
small  loads  are  taken  owing  to  the  greater  weight 
of  green  pea  vines  and  pods.  At  the  factory  are 
long  sheds,  the  same  as  at  sweet  corn  factories,  and 
the  farmer  pitches  the  vines  off  into  these  sheds. 
In  the  shed  is  a  long  table  carrying  an  endless 
chain.  Factory  employees  throw  small  bunches  of 
the  pea  vines  as  brought  in  by  the  farmer  on  to  this 
endless  chain  and  table,  which  carries  the  vines  to 
the  viner.  This  viner  separates  the  peas,  running 
them  into  a  box  and  the  vines  are  carried  out  into 
the  farmer's  wagon  or  into  the  silo.  The  old  sys- 
tem of  gathering  the  pods  required  fully  2,000 
pickers  to  keep  a  large  factory  in  operation  and  added 
about  two  cents  to  the  cost  of  each  can  of  product. 
Farmers  usually  mow  the  vines  in  the  morning,  and 
cut  down  only  such  amounts  as  can  be  delivered  the 
same  day.  In  wet  weather  there  is  danger  of  vines 
heating,  so  large  quantities  are  not  thrown  together. 
Growers  exercise  much  care  to  have  the  crop  mature 
evenly.  Strive  as  he  will,  the  farmer  must  expect 
a  few  peas  to  be  over-ripe  when  the  bulk  of  the 
crop  is  at  its  best.  Factories  are  laying  more  and 


THE    CANNED   PEA    INDUSTRY  49 

more  stress  on  quality,  and  the  grower  must  recog- 
nize this,  along  with  the  size  of  the  product. 

Blanching  the  Peas. — This  is  an  important  opera- 
tion with  the  canner.  Young  peas  will  stand  either 
a  long  or  short  blanch  better  than  old  ones.  The  ob- 
ject of  blanching  is  twofold,  (i)  To  remove  mu- 
cous substances  from  the  outside  and  a  part  of  the 
green  coloring  matter;  and  (2)  to  drive  water  into 
the  peas  so  they  will  all  be  tender.  A  system  of 
perforated  cylinders  in  the  blanching  process  re- 
moves most  of  the  small,  broken  peas.  From  here 
the  peas  go  into  a  large  filling  tank.  Empty  cans 
are  run  down  a  chute  from  the  floor  above  and 
drop  into  place  on  a  circle  connected  with  the  filling 
tank.  Liquor  is  also  added  at  this  time,  mechani- 
cally. The  cans,  filled,  pass  on  to  the  soldering 
machines,  thence  to  the  cooking  vats,  or  retorts, 
where  they  remain  40  minutes  at  a  temperature  of 
240  degrees.  From  here  they  go  to  the  cooling  vats 
and  after  that  to  the  storage.  As  the  cans  are 
packed  in  boxes  for  storage,  the  ends  are  pressed 
in,  this  having  the  twofold  effect  of  telling  whether 
or  not  the  can  is  full  and  also  facilitating  the  label- 
ing later.  Special  labels  are  put  on  to  suit  the  trade. 

Size  of  Cans. — Within  recent  years  quite  a  trade 
is  developing  in  gallon  cans.  This  makes  the 
product  cheaper  and  is  sold  to  the  hotel  and  board- 
ing house  trade.  When  filling,  peas  are  put  in  to 
within  three-eighths  inch  of  the  cap  and  the  liquid 
just  covers  the  peas.  The  average  fill  of  a  can  is 
such  that  there  will  be  14  ounces  of  peas  and  seven 
and  one-fourth  ounces  liquor  after  the  cans  have 
gone  through  the  cooking  vat,  or  the  processing,  as 
it  is  called.  The  better  the  grade  of  pea,  the  greater 


5O  PEAS  AND    PEA    CULTURE 

the  quantity  which  will  go  into  the  can,  and  these 
will  be  less  affected  by  either  blanching  or  process- 
ing, while  the  poorest  grade  of  peas  is  affected  the 
most.  The  consumer  would  do  well  to  recall  this 
fact  when  buying  short-weight  cans.  The  liquor 
used  in  canning  peas  varies  with  the  ideals  of  the 
factory.  It  is  composed  of  water,  sugar  and  salt. 
Heavy  liquors  are  used  in  the  fancy  and  extra  fancy 
grades.  In  fact,  this  usually  constitutes  the  differ- 
ence between  extra  fine  and  fine.  The  analyses  of 
35  brands  of  peas  purchased  in  the  open  market 
showed  the  sugar  content  of  the  liquor  to  vary 
between  .46  and  4.17  per  cent,  the  average  being 
2.62  per  cent.  More  sugar  is  used  in  eastern  than 
in  western  packing  sections.  The  average  amount 
of  salt  used  appears  to  be  around  10  pounds  to  100 
gallons  water.  About  the  same  amount  of  sugar  is 
used  as  of  salt. 

Processing  or  Cooking. — The  peas  are  cooked  in 
great  iron  retorts,  under  pressure,  or  in  a  solution 
of  calcium  salt,  in  order  to  secure  a  temperature 
above  that  of  boiling  water.  This  is  necessary 
because  all  germs  are  not  killed  at  boiling  tempera- 
ture, unless  continued  long  enough  to  disintegrate 
the  peas.  Occasionally,  packers  process  only  25  to 
30  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  240  degrees  F,  but 
the  great  majority  process  around  35  to  40 
minutes.  This  for  peas  which  are  allowed  to  stand 
overnight  on  the  vines.  Old,  hard  peas  are  proc- 
essed 40  to  45  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  245 
degrees.  Packers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  best  form 
of  heat  for  processing.  Some  use  dry  steam,  others 
use  water,  and  still  others  use  the  calcium  bath.  Water 
advocates  declare  they  secure  a  clearer  liquid  and 


THE    CANNED   PEA    INDUSTRY  51 

a  brighter  can.  Cans  heated  gradually  by  turning 
steam  on  slowly  have  a  clearer  liquid  than  when 
steam  is  turned  on  suddenly  at  full  pressure.  Very 
quick  heating  injures  the  peas  in  contact  with  the 
can,  and  also  causes  a  blackening  inside  of  the  can. 
As  the  calcium  system  is  maintained  at  a  high  heat 
the  effect  upon  the  peas  is  more  like  that  of  the 
quick  dry  steam.  Sterilization  is  effective  in  either 
of  the  three  processes. 

The  experienced  packer  cools  the  cans  immedi- 
ately after  taking  from  the  processing  vats.  If  cans 
are  only  slightly  cooled  and  stacked  in  large  quan- 
tities, those  in  the  center  will  retain  heat  for  many 
days.  This  will  tend  to  break  down  the  peas,  and 
injure  their  final  appearance  as  they  come  onto  the 
table.  Cooling  prevents  this.  Then,  too,  it  aids  in 
prompt  detection  of  leaks. 

Peas  Spoiling". — All  factories  face  the  possibility 
of  more  or  less  loss  through  spoilage.  This  may 
be  due  to  insufficient  processing,  to  leaks  in  the  can, 
or  possibly  spoilage  prior  to  the  canning.  Hard- 
ing and  Nicholson3  report  studies  of  bacteria  caus- 
ing serious  losses  in  canned  peas.  In  general,  the 
spoiled  cans  presented  a  bulged  appearance,  and  in 
some  cases  were  actually  broken  open.  The  peas 
had  a  disagreeable  odor,  suggesting  hydrogen  sul- 
phide. They  were  mushy,  skins  were  inflated,  and 
liquor  was  darkened  and  of  a  greenish  tinge,  due  to 
the  particles  of  the  ruptured  peas.  A  microscopical 
examination  of  the  juice  showed  that  the  cans  in 
which  the  disagreeable  odor  was  noticed  carried 
bacteria,  which  survived  the  heat  employed  in  proc- 


8  N.  Y.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  249,  pp.  153-168. 


52  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

essing.  This  bacteria  was  found  to  be  the  cause 
of  the  fermentation.  These  spores  were  destroyed 
on  heating  the  canned  peas  to  240  degrees  for  30 
minutes.  This  was  done  without  injury  to  the  com- 
mercial  quality  of  the  goods. 

Manufacturers  of  cans  allow  two  per  1,000  for 
defects  in  workmanship.  This  appears  to  be  ample. 
Tip  and  cap  leaks  are  much  more  common  than  end 
or  side  leaks,  and,  of  course,  are  due  to  incompetent 
workers  and  lax  inspection.  Spoilage  due  to  leaks 
usually  occurs  within  24  to  48  hours.  Peas  spoiled, 
owing  to  insufficient  processing,  are  known  to  the 
trade  as  "  swells  "  or  "  sours."  Occasionally,  peas 
spoil  while  standing  in  piles,  on  the  wagons,  in 
piles  at  factory,  or  perhaps  after  thrashing.  If  so, 
the  heat  and  fermentation  are  noted.  Thus  it  is 
important  to  see  that  the  peas  move  from  the 
grower's  field  on  through  the  viner,  the  grader,  the 
blanching  and  processer,  and  into  the  cans,  with  the 
greatest  possible  dispatch. 

Pea  Silage. — In  the  early  days,  pea  vines  were  a 
waste  product  in  many  factories.  In  fact,  some 
managers  actually  paid  to  have  them  hauled  away. 
Many  farmers  now  take  the  pea  vines  home  with 
them  and  feed  direct  to  the  stock,  or  place  them  in 
their  silos.  Factory  managers  frequently  provide 
a  series  of  large  silos  at  the  factory  and  in  case 
farmers  have  no  facilities  for  storing  the  silage,  the 
factory  silo  is  used  and  later  the  farmer  buys  this 
silage  at  $2,  or  thereabouts,  a  ton.  Crosby4  has  re- 
cently compiled  a  very  helpful  bulletin  on  the  util- 
ization of  pea-cannery  refuse  for  forage.  He  de- 


*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Circular  No.  45. 


THE    CANNED    PEA    INDUSTRY  53 

clares  the  refuse  vines  from  pea  canneries  are 
valuable  as  silage,  as  hay,  as  a  soiling  crop,  and  as 
a  fertilizer.  They  can  be  ensiled  either  in  a  silo  or 
in  a  stack.  "  The  silage  compares  favorably  with 
corn  silage,  and  by  many  is  regarded  as  superior, 
especially  for  dairy  cows.  It  is  also  valuable  for 
beef  cattle  and  for  sheep,  and  is  sometimes  fed  to 
horses,  mules  and  hogs.  It  has  been  used  success- 
fully as  an  exclusive  roughage  for  dairy  and  beef 
cattle,  sheep  and  horses.  Pea-vine  hay  is  a  valuable 
feed  for  all  classes  of  stock.  It  is  of  exceptional 
value  for  milch  cows  and  sheep.  It  is  generally 
considered  equal  or  even  superior  to  clover  hay. 
The  vines  are  valuable  as  a  soiling  crop,  but  their 
use  as  such  is  limited  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  cannery  or  viner.  As  a  manure,  pea  vines  have 
an  actual  fertilizing  value  around  $2.60  a  ton." 


CHAPTER  VII 
PEAS  AS  FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS 

In  its  broadest  sense,  forage  means  any  food 
suitable  for  live  stock,  whether  it  be  pasture,  grass, 
crops  cut  green  and  fed,  matured  crops  with  or 
without  seeds,  etc.  As  generally  applied,  how- 
ever, the  term  means  a  pasture  crop  other  than 
grasses.  A  soiling  crop  is  one  which  is  cut  green 
and  fed  directly  to  the  animals  in  the  green  state. 
Forage  crops  is  a  term  for  that  practice  of  feeding 
to  stock  in  its  matured  form,  being  fed  either  before 
or  after  the  removal  of  the  seeds.  Forage,  soiling, 
and  fodder  crops  include  a  large  number  of  the  same 
plants.  However,  this  chapter  is  to  deal  with  only 
peas  in  the  different  combinations  in  common  use 
among  farmers.  It  Avill  include  a  brief  discussion  of 
cowpeas,  the  king  of  forage  plants,  in  the  South. 

Culture. — Whether  for  soiling  or  forage  pur- 
poses, the  preparation  of  the  land,  cultivation,  seed 
considerations,  etc.,  do  not  differ  radically  from 
those  already  set  forth  in  preceding  chapters.  For 
green  pasture,  peas  are  usually  sown  with  some 
grain  like  oats.  For  instance,  peas  and  oats  are 
sown  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one-half  to  two  bushels 
each  to  the  acre.  Small  varieties  of  peas  are  pre- 
ferred, as  they  produce  more  forage.  Seed  can  be 
mixed  and  sown  with  the  drill,  or  the  peas  can  be 
sown  broadcast,  and  the  land  plowed  three  or  four 
inches  deep  and  then  the  oats  broadcasted  or  drilled 
in.  Peas  are  sometimes  sown  alone  as  food  for 

54 


PEAS  AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  55 

swine.  About  two  bushels  seed  to  the  acre  should 
be  used.  When  peas  and  oats  are  pastured  by 
sheep  they  may  be  turned  in  to  graze  them  down 
when  six  to  ten  inches  high.  Do  not  allow  sheep  to 
pasture  on  them  when  the  vines  are  wet.  This 
mixture  constitutes  an  excellent  pasture  for  both 
sheep  and  lambs.  The  peas  may  be  pastured  by 
swine,  either  before  or  after  maturity.  When 
pasturing  before  peas  are  ripe,  it  is  customary  to 
begin  when  seeds  are  about  ready  to  cook.  Swine 
should  not  be  turned  into  a  field  of  peas,  green  or 
ripe,  and  left  there  for  a  long  period  at  the  start. 
The  green  peas  may  derange  the  digestive  organs, 
and  ripe  peas  are  apt  to  swell  in  the  stomach  and 
cause  death  through  undue  distention.  Later, 
when  swine  are  accustomed  to  the  feed,  they  may 
forage  upon  the  crop  at  will.  When  pasturing  swine 
on  ripe  peas,  allow  them  an  area  only  large  enough 
to  accommodate  them  for  a  short  period.  If  allowed 
to  roam  about  the  entire  field  there  is  apt  to  be 
much  loss,  especially  if  there  be  rainy  weather. 

Fertilizers. — As  explained  in  earlier  chapters, 
peas  belong  to  the  legume  family,  and  gather  much 
nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere.  Therefore,  whether 
grown  alone  or  with  other  crops  for  forage  or  soil- 
ing purposes,  the  land  is  benefited.  Peas  are  an 
excellent  crop  to  sow  for  green  manure.  If  sown  as 
late  as  July  15,  in  northern  latitudes,  a  large  amount 
of  green  manure  will  be  secured  before  frost  comes. 
This  crop  of  vines  turned  under  contributes  mate- 
rially to  soil  improvement.  Shutt1  reports  the  value 
of  peas  as  a  substitute  for  clover  for  soil  improve- 


1Can.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt  of  1906,  pp.  155-158. 


OATS  AND  PEAS  FOR  FORAGE. 

(Over  three  feet  tall.) 
56 


PEAS   AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  57 

ment.  He  found  that  crops  of  peas  can  be  grown, 
supplying  130  pounds  nitrogen  per  acre,  which  is 
almost  identical  with  that  produced  by  alfalfa, 
vetches,  and  many  of  the  clovers.  The  organic  mat- 
ter produced  is  equal  in  quantity  to  that  given  by 
a  good  clover  crop,  although  somewhat  less  than 
produced  by  alfalfa.  In  addition  to  nitrogen  the  pea 
crop  shows  large  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  particularly  the  latter. 

Balentine2  conducted  a  series  of  contests  to  deter- 
mine comparative  value  of  peas  and  barley  as  a 
fertilizer  and  for  feeding.  He  concluded  that  peas 
for  stock  purposes  are  to  be  preferred  to  barley.  A 
Black-Eyed  Marrowfat  pea  yielded  double  the 
amount  of  the  Canada  field  pea.  Zavitz  and  Loch- 
head3  seeded  peas  with  oats  as  a  pasture  crop  for 
cattle.  The  results  were  not  entirely  satisfactory,  as 
the  oats  were  eaten  much  more  readily  than  the 
peas.  The  mixture  is  more  suitable  for  sheep  or 
swine.  Wheat  grown  after  a  crop  of  peas  averaged 
36  bushels  to  the  acre,  after  a  crop  of  rape  30  bush- 
els, and  after  a  crop  of  buckwheat  29  bushels. 

Schneidewind4  secured  good  results  with  peas  as 
a  green  manure.  He  states  that  the  success  of 
green  manures  depends  more  largely  upon  the  rain- 
fall during  the  period  of  growth  than  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  In  Canada,  where  field  peas 
were  used  as  a  green  manure  for  preparation  of 
land  for  winter  wheat,  an  average  of  six  and  one- 
half  bushels  more  wheat  to  the  acre  was  secured 
than  where  buckwheat  was  plowed  under.  A  for- 


2  Me.  Exper.  Sta.  Farm,  Bui.  1890. 

3  Ont.  Agri.  Col.  Farm,  Bui.  126. 
*E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  19. 


58  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

eign  experiment  with  lupines,  crimson  clover,  and 
peas  as  a  green  manure  for  oats  and  barley,  showed 
that  peas  were  most  effective.  Sweetser5  gives  the 
following  data  as  to  yields  of  forage  plants  per 
acre: 

YIELDS   OF   FORAGE   PLANTS   PER   ACRE    (TOPS   AND 
ROOTS) 


I  2  l«l 

n-(  t-i  «8  o  w       C 

25  -C  HI  tJOf-i 

^5  £  H  C  o  O  C  O 

*    §       i    I  !•   ^        ^^ 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Flat  pea  ..            .     41,412  9,073  906  8,167  239.3  49.8  161.3  1222  1,495.7 

Canada  field  pea.    21,582  4,218  615  3,603  114.6  30.3  54.0  73.1  716.3 
Medium  red 

Clover...         .     29,760  7,438  626  6,812  143.7  39.6  156.6  98.3  898.2 

Timothy 21,750  6,281  555  5,726      47.0  27.5  78.0  35.5       

Feed  for  Live  Stock. — Whether  as  forage,  soiling, 
or  a  fodder  crop,  peas  constitute  an  exceedingly  im- 
portant crop  in  live  stock  husbandry.  They  are 
becoming  more  popular  every  year,  and  justly  so. 
While  building  up  soil  fertility  they  are  also  pro- 
viding the  best  kind  of  feed  for  the  stock,  and  in  the 
right  sort  of  combinations  are  the  most  economical 
crop. 

Peas  and  oats  are  the  most  popular  combination, 
although  wheat,  barley,  and  occasionally  rye,  and 
even  corn,  have  been  used  in  combination.  Oats 
and  peas  mature  about  the  same  time,  while  barley 
is  a  little  ahead  of  the  peas,  and  wheat  is  a  little 
behind.  Oats  and  peas  can  be  planted  in  succession 
of  about  two  weeks,  and  by  planting  as  soon  as 


BPa.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1897-98. 


PEAS   AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  59 

ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  there  will  be 
a  soiling  crop  for  the  stock  early  in  the  season. 
Succession  crops  on  other  plots  can  be  made  to 
carry  the  stock  on  through  most  of  the  season.  If  a 
more  general  use  were  made  of  oats  and  peas  for 
the  summer  feeding,  there  would  be  a  decrease  in 
the  expense  of  producing  milk.  For  late  feeding 
barley  and  oats  instead  of  oats  and  peas  may  prove 
a  better  combination.  A  guide  will  be  to  sow  bar- 
ley with  the  peas  after  July  i,  instead  of  oats. 

Wilson6  gives  an  interesting  report  of  a  trial  of 
feeding  four  cows  with  green  oat  and  pea  fodder. 
The  breeds  were  Shorthorn,  Holstein,  Red  Polled, 
and  Jerseys.  Previous  to  the  experiment  they  had 
been  grazing  on  a  good  blue  grass  pasture,  and  had 
received  four  pounds  cornmeal  daily  in  addition. 
The  soiling  commenced  July  21,  feeding  green  oat 
and  pea  fodder.  From  no  to  125  pounds  were  fed 
per  cow  daily,  together  with  four  pounds  cornmeal. 
Taking  the  cows  from  an  abundant  pasture  at  this 
season,  keeping  them  confined  in  a  barn,  and  feeding 
them  all  they  would  eat  of  peas  and  oats  resulted 
in  an  increased  flow  of  milk  from  all.  Shaw7  de- 
scribes how  peas  are  grown  in  the  San  Luis  Valley, 
Col.,  at  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet,  and  used  for  fatten- 
ing sheep  and  lambs.  They  are  allowed  to  pasture 
the  crop.  In  his  opinion  this  system  of  grazing 
is  capable  of  being  extended  in  the  mountain  states. 
Lindsey8  found  that  cured  hay  from  peas  and  oats 
is  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  good  rowen. 

Cowpea. — Here  is  a  justly  popular  plant.     The 


8  la.  Exper.  Sta.,  Bui.  23. 

7  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  224. 

8  Mass.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.  for  1893. 


PEAS   AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  6 1 

Louisiana  experiment  station  has  summarized  the 
advantages  of  the  cowpea  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  a  nitrogen  gatherer. 

2.  It  shades  the  soil  in  summer,  keeping  it  in  a 
condition  most  suitable  to  the  most  rapid  nitrifica- 
tion, leaving  the  soil  friable  and  loose  for  the  suc- 
ceeding crop. 

3.  The  cowpea  has   a   large  root  development, 
and  hence  pumps  up  large  amounts  of  water  from 
great  depths,  also  mineral  matter. 

4.  Its  adaptability  to  all  kinds  of  soil,  stiffest 
clays  to  most  porous  sands,  is  marvelous. 

5.  It  stands  the  heat  and  sunshine  of  southern 
summers. 

6.  Its  rapid  growth  enables  farmers  in  the  South 
to  grow  two  crops  annually  on  the  same  soil. 

7.  When  sown  thickly  it  shades  the  soil  effec- 
tually, smothering  out  all  weeds. 

8.  It  is  the  best  preparatory  crop  known  to  the 
southern  farmer,  as  every  kind  of  crop  grows  well 
after  it. 

9.  It  furnishes  excellent  food  in  large  quantities 
for  both  man  and  animals. 

Cultural  principles  of  the  cowpea  vary  with  the 
latitude  and  object  for  which  grown.  If  vines  are 
wanted  in  the  South,  the  crop  is  planted  early;  later 
planting  is  the  rule  if  the  crop  is  for  seed.  Amount 
of  seed  to  sow  depends  in  a  large  measure  on  size 
of  peas  and  manner  of  sowing.  If  broadcasted,  one 
bushel  of  the  smaller  to  two  bushels  of  the  larger 
varieties  will  be  required.  If  drilled,  six  to  16  quarts 
to  the  acre  is  sufficient.  The  best  soil  is  one  which 
is  warm  and  comparatively  moist.  Seed  will  rot 
if  planted  too  early,  and  this  is  why  many  northern 


62  PEAS  AND  PEA   CULTURE 

farmers  have  failed.  Wait  until  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly warm  before  starting  cowpeas.  If  sown  in 
drills,  rows  are  made  18  to  30  inches,  and  seed  is 
covered  two  inches  deep.  The  Mississippi  experi- 
ment station  reports  that  the  increased  yield  of 
both  seed  and  hay  obtained  by  drilling  the  seed  is 
more  than  sufficient  to  pay  the  additional  expense 
of  drilling  and  cultivation.  If  the  crop  is  sown 
broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  no  cultivation  is  neces- 
sary. 

As  with  field  peas  it  is  necessary  to  apply  a 
nitrogenous  fertilizer.  Potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
will  give  good  results.  The  Delaware  experiment 
station  used  160  pounds  muriate  potash  to  the  acre, 
and  it  doubled  the  yield  of  vines.  Best  yields  in 
Georgia  were  obtained  when  phosphate  was  used  at 
the  rate  of  200  to  400  pounds  per  acre.  A  dressing 
of  100  to  200  pounds  acid  phosphate,  with  about 
the  same  amount  of  muriate  of  potash,  applied  to 
each  acre  should  give  satisfactory  results  on  average 
soils. 

Harvesting  cowpeas  is  not  a  simple  operation, 
especially  if  damp  weather  prevails.  If  cured  for 
hay,  vines  are  cut  when  pods  begin  to  ripen.  They 
are  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  in  the  morning  after 
the  dew  is  off,  and  when  the  vines  have  wilted  the 
hay  tedder  is  run  over  the  field.  A  second  tedding 
may  be  given  to  hasten  curing.  Ordinarily,  peas 
cut  in  the  morning  and  tedded  in  the  afternoon  will 
be  ready  to  go  into  the  small  bunches  the  following 
afternoon.  They  are  left  in  these  bunches,  or  cocks, 
for  two  or  three  days  before  being  hauled  into  the 
barn.  If  it  rains  in  the  meantime,  these  bunches 
have  to  be  opened  up.  Such  are  the  methods  in 


PEAS   AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  63 

vogue  at  the  Mississippi  experiment  station.  The 
North  Carolina  experiment  station  advocates 
putting  them  into  the  barn  when  dried  out  enough 
so  that  no  juice  will  run  out  of  the  vines  when  they 
are  twisted  with  the  hands.  This  station  advises 
leaving  the  vines  on  the  ground  where  mowed  un- 
til they  are  half  cured.  It  is  argued  that  the  crop  is 
liable  to  mold  if  put  in  bunches. 

Cowpea  seed  can  be  harvested  for  grain  by  pick- 
ing off  the  pods  when  ripe  and  thrashing  with  a 
flail  or  machine.  Farmers  and  experiment  stations 
agree  that  the  most  economical  way  of  using  cow- 
peas  is  to  feed  the  vines  and  peas  to  stock,  and 
return  the  manure  to  the  soil.  Stock  is  frequently 
turned  into  the  field  and  allowed  to  do  the  harvest- 
ing. Swine  are  especially  proficient  in  this  con- 
nection. Then  again,  the  crop  is  frequently  plowed 
under  as  a  green  manure.  This  practice  is 
especially  commendable  on  heavy  soils.  Various 
analyses  show  that  a  good  crop  of  cowpeas  plowed 
under  will  add  to  the  soil  fully  no  pounds  nitro- 
gen to  the  acre,  which  has  a  cash  value  of  $14  to 
$16.  It  has  also  added  about  24  pounds  phosphoric 
acid  and  100  pounds  potash  to  the  acre.  The 
Georgia  station  found  that  mowing  the  vines,  per- 
mitting them  to  lie  on  the  surface,  and  plowing 
under  in  November,  was  better  than  turning  the 
green  vines  under  in  August. 

There  are  65  or  more  varieties  of  cowpeas,  and 
certain  varieties  are  best  adapted  to  specific  locali- 
ties. Good  advice  from  a  local  seedsman  and  actual 
experience  of  the  grower,  are  desirable  in  determin- 
ing the  best  variety  for  each  section.  King  is  a 
good  variety  to  plant  in  corn.  Pea  is  of  medium 


64  PEAS  AND   PEA   CULTURE 

size,  bluish-black  in  color,  and  if  not  pastured  too 
close  it  will  reseed  the  ground  every  year.  The 
Red  Ripper  is  a  medium-size  pea  of  dark  red  color, 
and  possesses  good  quality,  like  the  King.  Both  of 
these  varieties  make  a  large  yield  of  hay  or  feed, 
as  they  are  heavy,  even  producers.  They  are  more 
rank  than  the  Iron,  Crowder,  New  Era,  Whippoor- 
will,  or  Black  Eye.  The  Speckled  Java  is  the  largest 
of  the  cowpea  family,  but  must  be  harvested  as 
soon  as  ripe,  as  the  seed  will  shell  easily.  The 
Brown  Crowder  is  said  to  be  a  good  general  purpose 
pea.  The  earliest  cowpea,  and  hence  the  one  best 
adapted  to  northern  latitudes,  is  the  New  Era.  It 
matures  in  a  little  more  than  60  days  from  time  of 
planting.  The  Georgia  experiment  station  says  the 
heaviest  yielder  of  vines  is  Red  Ripper,  followed 
closely  by  Forage  or  Shiny  Black,  and  Unknown ; 
the  heaviest  producers  of  peas  are  Unknown,  Cal- 
ico, Clay,  and  White  Brown  Hull.  Cowpeas  are 
attacked  by  the  weevils,  the  same  as  are  field  peas. 
Treatment  is  similar. 

Cover  Crop  for  Orchards. — Peas  alone,  and  in 
combination  with  oats  and  barley,  have  been  used 
advantageously  as  a  cover  crop  in  orchards.  Peas 
and  oats  can  be  sown  early  in  the  spring  and  plowed 
under  when  the  oats  are  in  bloom.  The  land  can  be 
thoroughly  harrowed,  and  August  I  peas  and  barley 
sown.  The  latter  crop  is  left  to  stand  through  the  win- 
ter, and  plowed  under  the  succeeding  spring.  Beach 
and  Close9  speak  of  Canada  peas  and  buckwheat, 
and  blue  peas  and  buckwheat,  as  cover  crops.  Both 
combinations  gave  satisfactory  results.  The  growth 


9  N.  Y.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt,  1896. 


PEAS   AS   FORAGE  AND   SOILING   CROPS  65 

of  Canada  peas  and  buckwheat  was  so  great  as  to 
interfere  with  gathering  the  winter  apples.  Cow- 
peas  can  be  included  in  the  category  of  cover  crops, 
the  same  as  field  peas.  In  using  these  and  other 
combinations,  practically  the  same  good  results  are 
secured  as  with  clover  or  vetch  used  as  a  cover  crop. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
BREEDING  AND  SEED  IMPROVEMENT 

Thousands  of  acres  of  peas  are  grown  annually 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  seed.  Large  seed  houses 
arrange  with  farmers  to  grow  a  certain  acreage  at 
a  stated  contract  price  per  bushel.  The  seedsman 
furnishes  the  seed  and  receives  the  entire  output  of 
the  individual  farmer.  The  returns  to  the  farmer 
are  usually  a  little  better  than  from  general  culture, 
although  the  soil  requirements  and  cultural  methods 
are  not  materially  different  than  for  the  general 
crop.  Therefore,  the  ample  supply  ordinarily  keeps 
prices  at  a  comparatively  moderate  level.  Yet  the 
harvesting  must  be  done  on  time  and  with  care,  and 
the  farmer  must  see  to  it  that  varieties  are  not  mixed, 
since  the  seed  houses  are  held  responsible  for  the 
product.  The  seed  is  delivered  in  good,  bright  con- 
dition without  being  badly  broken  or  full  of  for- 
eign matter. 

Seed  Growing  Specialty. — Wisconsin  ranks  high 
as  a  pea-growing  state,  as  does  also  Michigan,  New 
York,  and  South  Dakota.  In  the  Lake  Shore  coun- 
ties of  Wisconsin  farmers  regard  the  pea  crop  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  it  is  a  specialty  with  them. 
The  ground  is  usually  plowed  in  the  fall  so  as  to  be 
ready  for  early  spring  planting.  The  ground  is 
fitted  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  two  to 
three  bushels  seed  to  the  acre  sown,  depending 
upon  size.  A  drill  or  seeder  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  peas  are  covered  about  three  to  four 


BREEDING   AND   SEED    IMPROVEMENT  / 

inches  deep.  Harvesting-  is  done  when  the  larger 
portion  of  vines  and  pods  have  turned  yellow.  A 
mower  with  bunching  attachment  is  the  approved 
harvester,  although  science  has  now  provided  a 
special  pea-harvesting  machine  which  does  excellent 
work.  Peas  are  thrashed  in  an  ordinary  grain  sepa- 
rator, blank  concaves  being  substituted  for  the 
regulation  ones.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  machine 
to  thrash  out  1,000  bushels  daily.  Peas  may  be 
stored  in  granaries  or  taken  to  the  market.  Many 
farmers  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  grow  on  their 
own  hook  without  any  contract  with  seed  dealers. 
The  Scotch  green  pea  is  a  leader  in  this  section  of 
Wisconsin. 

In  1909  Lake  county,  S.  D.,  alone  had  an  acreage 
around  3,000  acres  garden  peas  which  were  raised 
for  seed  purposes.  The  preceding  season  an  eastern 
seed  company  went  into  the  county  and  interested 
the  farmers  in  the  crop.  The  company  furnished 
the  seed  and  contracted  with  farmers  to  pay  them 
$i  a  bushel  at  the  station  for  the  crop.  An  over- 
seer was  furnished  by  the  company  and  he  gave 
advice  as  to  cultural  methods,  manner  of  harvesting, 
marketing,  etc.  The  yield  was  irregular,  running 
from  five  to  20  bushels  to  the  acre.  Farmers  con- 
sidered the  results  disappointing,  and  many  took  up 
other  lines.  One  of  the  special  drawbacks  reported 
was  the  great  number  of  weeds  that  infested  the 
fields.  On  land  that  was  fairly  well  prepared  before 
seeding,  peas  grew  nicely  until  they  had  reached 
full  height.  Then  the  weeds  began  to  catch  up  with 
them,  and  soon  had  outgrown  them.  When  harvest 
arrived,  one  could  hardly  tell  without  close  exam- 
ination, whether  it  was  a  crop  of  peas  or  weeds  in 


BREEDING   AND   SEED    IMPROVEMENT  69 

the  field.  Another  difficulty  experienced  was  in 
harvesting.  Vines  were  cut  with  a  mowing  ma- 
chine, and  raked  into  windrows  with  a  horse  rake. 
Unseasonable  weather  dampened  the  pods,  which 
later  dried.  The  drying  process  cracked  open  the 
pods  and  the  peas  fell  in  every  direction.  These 
points  are  mentioned  as  factors  to  be  avoided.  One 
Dakota  farmer  writes  that  the  farmers  could  have 
saved  nearly  all  the  crop  if  they  had  forked  over 
the  piles  immediately  after  the  rain.  The  state  ex- 
periment station  has  secured  yields  of  15  to  25 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  it  is  evident  the  state  is  well 
adapted  to  the  industry. 

Possibilities  in  Breeding. — Beyond  question  the 
future  has  much  in  store  for  those  who  will  care- 
fully select  and  breed  peas  along  well-defined  lines. 
M.  B.  Keeney,  one  of  the  largest  seed  growers  in 
New  York,  says  :  "  There  are  great  possibilities  open 
to  the  careful  student  of  peas,  in  selecting  and  re- 
selecting,  with  reference  to  purity  and  productive- 
ness. However,  if  selections  are  made  on  account 
of  productiveness  only,  there  is  great  danger  of 
drifting  away  from  the  true  type  of  the  variety,  and 
while  increased  productiveness  may  be  obtained, 
there  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  loss  in  quality,  of 
earliness,  or  both.  A  man  who  does  hybridizing  in 
peas  should  not  expect  to  get  more  than  one  new 
variety  out  of  200  crosses.  If  he  saves  all  that 
seem  to  be  fairly  good,  he  will  soon  have  a  great 
accumulation  of  types  and  strains  of  doubtful  value. 
Then  again,  a  cross  or  a  selection  may  seem  to  be 
particularly  interesting  during  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  but  later  it  may  develop  other  qualities  which 
make  it  undesirable.  It  generally  takes  five  to  ten 


7O  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

years  to  fix  the  type  of  a  new  variety,  for  during 
the  first  half  dozen  years  a  new  sort  is  apt  to  be 
unsteady  and  uncertain  as  to  its  character." 

Some  comprehensive  and  interesting  experiments 
in  breeding  of  peas  were  undertaken  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts experiment  station  by  Pomeroy  in  1907. 
The  work  has  been  continued  ever  since,  and  is 
now  in  charge  of  Professor  Shaw,  who  in  July,  1909, 
wrote  as  follows :  "  We  are  aiming  at  some  definite 
data  regarding  heredity,  variation  and  correlation. 
The  characters  studied  are  vine  length,  number  of 
pods  per  vine,  pod  length,  number  of  peas  per  pod, 
and  the  total  number  of  peas  per  vine.  We  aim 
to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the  descent  of  each  plant, 
and  examine  into  the  correlation  of  these  factors  in 
each  generation,  and  in  what  degree  they  are  trans- 
mitted to  succeeding  generations.  The  amount  of 
variation  of  each  factor  in  each  generation  is  also 
carefully  considered.  The  methods  used  are  some- 
what technical,  being  worked  out  by  Galton  and 
Pearson  in  England.  Results  so  far  are  not  very 
conclusive.  The  work  was  started  as  a  sort  of  side 
issue,  and  last  year  developed  great  interest.  One 
or  two  distinctive  strains  have  appeared,  probably 
because  of  mixed  seed  at  the  start.  The  descend- 
ants of  different  plants  show  marked  differences, 
and  are  remarkably  uniform  among  themselves. 
Probably  the  fact  that  peas  are  very  generally  self- 
fertilized  accounts  for  this  fact.  The  puzzling  thing 
that  appeared  last  year  was  the  occurrence  of  one 
or  two  negative  heredity  coefficients,  but  this  de- 
mands further  investigation  before  much  depend- 
ence can  be  placed  in  it." 


BREEDING   AND   SEED    IMPROVEMENT  /I 

Gregory1  studied  the  historical  nature  of  differ- 
ences between  round  and  wrinkled  peas,  basing 
work  on  Mendel's  experiments.  He  found  that 
round  peas,  which  included  indented  sugar  peas, 
have  the  central  tissues  of  the  cotyledons  filled 
with  very  large  starch  grains.  In  the  same  region 
the  starch  grains  of  wrinkled  peas  are  of  a  decidedly 
different  type,  frequently  being  compound. 

Interesting  facts  relative  to  weight  and  specific 
gravity  of  pea  seed  is  given  by  Andree.2  He 
learned  the  lightest  peas  are  always  found  near  both 
ends  of  the  pod.  The  average  weight  of  a  pea  in  a 
pod  was  greater  the  larger  the  number  of  peas  in 
the  pod,  so  that  the  largest  pods  contain  the  heav- 
iest peas.  The  weight  of  peas  next  the  point  of 
pod  increased  with  the  increased  number  of  peas 
in  the  pod.  However,  with  exception  of  the  first 
and  last  peas,  there  was  but  a  very  small  difference 
in  the  weight  of  the  peas  in  the  same  pod.  Experi- 
ments as  to  specific  gravity  were,  in  general,  com- 
parable with  those  found  for  weights.  In  general 
practice,  however,  he  believes  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pay  much  attention  to  specific  gravity  in  selecting 
seed. 


XE.  s.  R.,  Vol.  16. 

2  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  5. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GARDEN  PEAS  AND  VARIETIES 

The  general  principles  underlying  the  success  of 
growing  garden  peas  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  already  outlined  for  the  field  sorts.  It  is 
possible,  however,  to  do  a  few  things  on  a  small 
scale  which  would  not  be  practical  in  a  large  way. 
For  the  early  sorts  sow  as  early  as  possible,  perhaps 
preparing  the  ground  the  preceding  fall.  This  crop 
will  stand  a  low  temperature  in  the  spring  without 
ill  effect.  If  the  smooth  and  early  seed  is  sown 
there  is  little  danger  of  its  rotting,  although  this 
will  not  hold  for  the  wrinkled  sorts.  Peas  will  give 
quicker  returns  if  covered  only  one  inch  deep  with 
soil.  Larger  pods  and  more  of  them  will  be  pro- 
duced if  the  seed  be  planted  in  trenches  three  to 
six  inches  deep,  covering  seed  only  shallow  at  first, 
and  then  gradually  bringing  the  soil  to  the  vine  as 
the  culture  proceeds.  This  favors  deep  rooting, 
tends  to  prevent  mildew,  and  prolongs  the  bearing 
season. 

In  garden  culture  it  is  customary  to  provide  suc- 
cession either  by  sowing  at  different  periods  or  by 
using  varieties  which  differ  in  time  required  to  pro- 
duce a  crop.  Plant  breeders  have  done  much  for 
the  housewife  in  finding  suitable  varieties  to  cover 
varying  conditions.  Refer  to  special  chapters  for 
details  concerning  soils,  fertilizers,  breeding,  etc. 
Peas  are  frequently  grown  in  the  double-crop  sys- 
tem, as  peas  followed  by  tomatoes,  corn,  cabbage, 

72 


GARDEN    PEAS   AND   VARIETIES 


73 


etc.  It  has  been  recommended  by  some  to  sow  corn 
and  peas  together,  with  the  idea  of  the  corn  pro- 
viding a  support  for  the  peas  and  a  corn  crop  to 
come  on  later.  The  author  has  tried  this  without 
success.  Corn  grows  much  slower  than  peas,  and 
the  support  part  of  the  argument  is  nil. 


GOOD  AND  POOR  SPECIMENS  OF  JUNO  PEA. 

Germination. — William  Saunders1  reports  an  ex- 
periment designed  to  show  the  vitality  of  different 
seeds.  The  percentage  of  germination  of  peas  with 
seed  five  years  old  on  different  tests  was  94,  95,  88, 

1 E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  14. 


74  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

64,  and  64.  His  results  showed  that  the  seeds 
germinated  as  well  the  second  year  as  the  first  and 
that  a  slight  decrease  in  germination  occurred  dur- 
ing the  third  year.  In  the  fourth  year  the  decrease 
was  much  more  marked. 

The  temperature  at  which  pea  seed  germinates 
varies  somewhat  with  the  type  and  variety.  For 
instance,  smooth  peas  germinate  at  a  temperature 
of  80  degrees  F,  while  wrinkled  sorts  run  be- 
tween 68  and  72.  On  the  smooth  sorts  vitality  is 
almost  destroyed  at  90  degrees. 

Supports. — The  more  productive  and  tall-growing 
varieties  are  given  some  sort  of  support  in  the 
garden.  Various  methods  are  resorted  to,  including 
wires  strung  on  posts,  poultry  netting  and  brush. 
As  to  the  advantage  of  supports  Jordan2  speaks  of 
plants  trained  to  woven  wire  trellis  and  untrained 
plants.  He  concluded  that  generally  the  untrained 
gave  a  larger  percentage  of  the  total  yields  in  first 
pickings  than  those  trained,  but  in  total  yield  and 
weight  per  plant  the  trained  sorts,  with  two  excep- 
tions, gave  much  better  results  than  those  untrained. 
Macoum  and  Balir3  report  it  is  a  decided  advantage 
to  provide  a  support  for  even  half  tall  varieties  of 
peas,  and  to  plant  two  rows  six  inches  apart  and 
allowing  two  feet  space  to  the  next  row.  This  was 
recommended  as  preferable  to  a  single  row  two  and 
one-half  feet  apart,  since  nearly  double  the  crop  is 
secured.  There  is  more  difficulty  in  hoeing  the 
double  rows.  Pods  from  the  staked  peas  were  much 
superior  to  the  unstaked  ones. 

Probably  the  most  common  method  of  support  is 

2N.  J.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1898. 
8E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  17. 


GARDEN    PEAS   AND    VARIETIES  75 

the  familiar  brush  system.  The  grower  simply 
takes  some  small  branches  of  trees  or  growing 
sprouts,  like  young  birch,  and  sticks  them  into  the 
ground  along  the  row  for  the  vines  to  climb.  This 


FAIR    SAMPLE   OF   POPULAR   THOMAS   LAXTON. 


76  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

should  be  done  before  the  peas  are  six  inches  tall, 
as  they  will  find  difficulty  in  climbing  if  once  be- 
coming incumbent  on  the  ground.  When  brush  are 
used,  many  plant  two  rows,  either  six  inches  apart 
or  perhaps  12  inches,  and  if  in  a  section  where  winds 
are  high,  brush  are  leaned  together  to  support  each 
other. 

Winter  Forcing. — Bailey4  reports  investigations 
in  growing  peas  in  forcing  houses  to  determine 
value  as  a  commercial  crop  under  glass.  Experi- 
ments showed  that  the  tall  or  half  dwarfed  varieties 
force  readily  in  a  cool  house,  yielding  edible  peas 
in  ii  or  12  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing.  The 
very  dwarf  varieties  were  found  to  yield  too  little  to 
pay  for  their  growing.  Extra  Early  Market  and 
Rural  New  Yorker  gave  satisfactory  results. 

Varieties. — The  number  of  varieties  covering  dif- 
ferent types,  seasons,  etc.,  is  legion.  A  single  work 
mentions  over  240.  Anticipating  this  particular 
chapter,  I  secured  all  the  different  varieties  offered 
for  sale  by  the  following  reputable  seed  concerns : 
Peter  Henderson  &  Co.,  Northrup,  King  &  Co.,  D. 
M.  Ferry  &  Co.,  and  W.  A.  Burpee.  Through  their 
co-operation  I  was  able  to  test  out  more  than  100 
varieties  the  same  season,  under  similar  conditions. 
The  results  were  satisfactory,  and  in  the  main  I  find 
varieties  as  represented.  Any  one  of  these  firms, 
or  other  reputable  ones,  provide  a  formidable  list  of 
varieties  for  different  conditions,  which  will  be 
more  than  an  average  gardener  will  want.  There- 
fore, the  reader  who  finds  it  hard  to  decide  upon 
varieties  cannot  do  better  than  secure  the  latest  cat- 


4  N.  Y.  Exper.  Sta.,  Cornell,  Bui.  96. 


GARDEN   PEAS  AND  VARIETIES  77 

alogue  of  some  of  these  concerns.  Varieties  change 
more  or  less  in  the  course  of  years.  My  conclusion, 
after  trying  all  those  varieties,  was  that  Alaska  is 
about  the  earliest  pea,  and  other  good  ones  follow- 
ing along  later  in  the  season  were  Thomas  Laxton, 
Gradus,  Champion,  Telephone,  Teddy  Roosevelt, 
and  Prosperity.  I  was  especially  pleased  with  the 
two  last  named. 

Jordan5  gives  a  comparative  test  made  with  81 
varieties  of  peas  with  reference  to  earliness  of  start- 
ing, earliness  of  maturity,  length  of  season,  per- 
centage of  shelled  peas,  total  weight,  number 
of  peas  per  pod,  height  of  vine,  and  yield.  Smooth 
sorts  were  reported  inferior  to  the  wrinkled  varie- 
ties in  all  respects  except  earliness.  He  believes 
that  all  the  numerous  varieties  of  dwarf  or  smooth 
peas  are  developed  from  the  old  Philadelphia  Extra 
Early  and  Dan  O'Rourke,  from  which  they  differ 
but  little. 

"  Varieties  differ  much  in  the  yield  of  shelled 
peas  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  pod,  the 
extreme  variation  of  12  per  cent  being  found. 
Among  the  early  dwarf  wrinkled  varieties  Exonian 
and  Station  were  earliest.  Among  the  late  half 
dwarf  and  tall,  smooth  varieties,  Pride  of  America 
gave  nearly  twice  as  large  a  yield  as  any  other.  New 
Giant  Pod  Marrow  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
productive  of  the  Marrowfats.  Melting  Sugar  is 
recommended."  This  pea  is  an  edible-podded  sort, 
the  pods  being  picked  and  eaten,  much  like  string 
beans.  Among  the  medium  and  late  dwarf  and  tall 
wrinkled  varieties,  the  following  are  mentioned 


5  N.  J.  Exper.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1898. 


78  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

favorably  by  Dr.  Jordan :  Advancer,  Admiral,  Bliss, 
Abundance,  Bliss  Everbearing,  Yorkshire  Hero, 
Stratagem,  Stratagem  Improved,  Queen,  and 
Heroine.  Besides  a  good  yield,  the  last  named  gave 
the  largest  percentage  edible  of  any  variety  raised. 
Bulletin  5  for  January,  1889,  at  the  Nebraska 
experiment  station,  gives  a  tabular  record  of  one 


GRADUS,  AN  EXCELLENT  PEA. 

season's  test  of  22  varieties  of  peas.  The  best  early 
peas  were  Cleveland's  Alaska,  Maud  S,  and  Rural 
New  Yorker.  The  best  continuous  bearer  was  the 
Dwarf  Sugar.  Vick's  King  of  the  Dwarfs  was  the 
best  dwarf  pea  tried.  Carter's  Premium  Gem, 
American  Wonder,  Telegraph,  Quality,  and  Pride 
of  the  Market,  were  good  bearers.  Brown6  recom- 

6  E.  S.  R.,  Vol.  14. 


GARDEN    PEAS   AND   VARIETIES  79 

mends  Surprise  and  Gradus  for  an  early,  and  Cham- 
pion of  England  for  a  later  pea. 

As  one  goes  into  the  literature  of  varieties,  and 
notes  the  different  sorts  recommended  at  the  experi- 
ment stations  and  agricultural  colleges,  he  is  sur- 
prised to  note  the  multitude  of  names  which  are  un- 
familiar. Very  few  of  the  popular  sorts,  15  or  20 
years  ago,  are  recognized  as  standards  now. 

The  classification  of  varieties  is  found  in  an  ear- 
lier chapter,  to  which  the  prospective  gardener  is 
referred.  Let  the  novice  remember,  one  classifica- 
tion would  divide  green  peas  into  two  great  classes, 
smooth  and  wrinkled.  The  former  is  the  early  type, 
and  can  be  planted  much  earlier  in  the  season,  but 
the  peas  are  not  nearly  as  sweet.  The  wrinkled 
sorts  are  the  standard,  and  strains  are  being  de- 
veloped which  come  on  so  rapidly  that  they  are 
nearly  as  early  as  the  smooth  sorts.  A  number  of 
new  classes  in  the  extra  early,  early,  mid-season, 
and  late  peas,  have  been  added  recently.  The 
Alaska  or  Extra  Early  type  has  been  added  to  by 
the  Ameer  and  Claudit.  The  latter  is  really  a  large- 
podded  Alaska.  The  Ameer  is  almost  as  early  as 
the  Alaska,  and  possesses  much  longer  pods.  It  is 
blue-seeded,  grows  about  three  feet  tall,  and  the 
pods  are  nearly  as  large  as  Telephone. 

The  next  class  of  dwarf  wrinkled  earlies  takes  in 
American  Wonder,  Nott's  Excelsior,  etc.  The 
alleged  improvement  in  this  group  is  Laxtonian, 
which  is  really  a  dwarf  Gradus.  Another  class  is 
the  taller,  early  wrinkled  varieties  represented  by 
the  Thomas  Laxton,  Gradus,  etc.  These  are  two 
very  popular  varieties,  and  an  alleged  improvement 
on  them  is  Early  Morn.  Another  is  re-selected  Pilot. 


8o 


PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 


For  the  average  reader  a  division  made  by  one  of 
the  large  seed  houses  already  mentioned  is  perhaps 
as  helpful  as  can  be  suggested :  "  Peas  for  the 
garden  are  divided  into  four  classes,  Extra  Early 
Round  Seeded  sorts,  Extra  Early  Wrinkled  sorts, 
Early  Dwarf  sorts,  and  Main  Crop  sorts.  The  ex- 
tra early  varieties  are  largely  grown  by  gardeners 
for  early  market.  They  ripen  more  uniformly  than 


THE  PRODUCTIVE  PROSPERITY 


other  peas,  and  most  of  the  pods  can  be  taken  from 
the  vine  at  the  first  picking.  The  peas  are  not  sweet, 
but  can  be  planted  very  early.  Examples  of  this  class 
are  Alaska,  Maud  S,  First  and  Best,  New  Prolific,  etc. 


GARDEN    PEAS   AND   VARIETIES  8l 

"  The  extra  early  wrinkled  varieties  are  nearly  as 
early  as  the  round  seeded  sorts,  but  do  not  mature 
as  uniformly.  These,  while  less  desirable  for  early 
market  purposes,  are  fine  for  family  use.  They  are 
much  sweeter  than  the  round  sorts.  Examples  are 
Surprise,  Thomas  Laxton,  Gradus,  Advancer,  etc. 
The  third  class  of  early  dwarf  varieties  require  no 
brushing,  and  are  in  strong  demand  for  family  use. 
The  Improved  American  Wonder,  Nott's  Excelsior, 
Little  Gem,  Stratagem,  Daisy,  etc.  The  fourth 
division  is  the  main  crop  sorts,  including  the  Mar- 
rowfats, Telephone,  Champion,  Everbearing,  Duke 
of  Albany,  Telegraph,  Alderman,  and  Prosperity." 

Some  may  be  interested  in  the  edible-podded  peas, 
but  I  must  confess  they  do  not  appeal  to  me.  I 
tried  both  Dwarf  Gray  Sugar  and  Mammoth  Melt- 
ing Sugar.  They  grow  as  represented,  and  are 
marvelous  yielders.  The  Dwarf  Gray  Sugar  vines 
grow  only  about  15  to  20  inches  tall,  whereas  the 
Mammoth  Melting  Sugar  will  reach  a  height  of  four 
feet  or  even  more.  A  package  of  these  might  not  be 
amiss  in  the  family  garden. 

At  best  the  multitude  of  varieties  is  confusing  to 
the  gardener  without  experience.  However,  after 
two  or  three  years,  he  settles  down  to  a  half  dozen 
or  so  varieties  as  best  for  his  particular  conditions. 
Naturally  the  selection  will  vary,  but  this  chapter, 
together  with  the  earlier  ones,  I,  II  and  III,  also 
suggestions  from  the  latest  seed  catalogues,  will 
prove  helpful  in  arriving  at  the  most  satisfactory 
combination. 


CHAPTER  X 
SWEET  PEAS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 

The  sweet  pea  has  very  properly  been  termed  the 
queen  of  all  annuals.  It  is  a  magnificent  flower,  and 
its  culture  is  comparatively  simple.  So  much  so 
that  even  amateurs  secure  with  it  most  gratifying 
results.  The  sweet  pea  is  native  of  Sicily,  and  has 
been  known  hundreds  of  years.  The  story  goes  that 
an  Italian  monk,  by  the  name  of  Franciscus  Cupani, 
sent  seeds  to  England  as  early  as  1699,  and  their 
real  culture  dates  from  that  period.  In  1870  im- 
petus was  given  the  culture  through  the  work  of 
Henry  Eckford  of  England.  Another  improver  was 
the  well-known  plant  specialist,  Thomas  Laxton  of 
England.  In  1901,  Silas  Cole  of  England  set  the 
trade  agog  by  bringing  out  the  now  famous 
Countess  Spencer,  which  was  a  great  improvement 
in  size,  texture,  color  and  conformation.  This  was 
introduced  in  1904,  and  now  there  are  many  sports 
from  the  Countess  Spencer  variety  which  are  prov- 
ing very  popular.  Enterprising  seedsmen  in  Amer- 
ica were  not  long  in  taking  up  the  improvements 
brought  out  in  England,  the  well-known  firm  of  W. 
A.  Burpee  of  Pennsylvania  perhaps  taking  the  lead. 
This  firm  alone  has  a  two-acre  garden  given  over 
exclusively  to  the  cultivation  of  sweet  peas. 
George  W.  Kerr,  who  has  had  many  years'  experi- 
ence in  England  with  the  flower,  recently  edited  a 
little  booklet  for  the  Burpee  firm,  which  gives  many 
helpful  pointers  on  sweet  peas. 


SWEET    PEAS    AND   THEIR    CULTURE  83 

Soil  Considerations. — The  ideal  soil  for  sweet 
peas  is  a  heavy,  deep  loam,  inclined  to  stiffness. 
However,  ordinary  garden  soil  will  produce  good  re- 
sults. Do  not  plant  the  sweet  peas  on  soil  too  poor 
to  grow  anything  else.  While  a  little  shade  will 
be  particularly  appreciated  when  the  sun  is  hot  in 
July  and  August,  the  plants  should  have  plenty  of 
light.  Many  successful  growers  plant  in  the  open 
garden,  where  there  is  free  circulation  of  air  and 
sunshine. 

The  best  preparation  of  the  soil  means  a  start 
the  preceding  fall.  Dig  a  trench  24  to  30  inches 
deep,  and  mix  the  soil  with  light  stable  dressing  or 
something  to  provide  humus  for  the  plants.  Re- 
place the  soil,  putting  in  a  good  layer  of  well- 
decayed  cow  manure,  which  is  also  covered  with  a 
few  inches  of  dirt.  Allow  to  remain  over  winter,  and 
early  the  following  spring  the  ground  will  be  ready 
for  planting.  The  trenches  can  be  18  to  24  inches 
wide  for  the  rows,  and  rows  themselves  four  to  five 
feet  apart. 

Sowing. — There  is  little  danger  of  sowing  sweet 
pea  seed  too  early.  In  fact,  many  believe  in  starting 
the  seed  the  preceding  fall.  In  the  southern  states 
fall  planting  can  be  safely  done,  perhaps  in  October, 
but  in  the  latitude  of  New  York,  November  and 
early  December  would  be  better.  If  they  are  sown 
too  early  they  will  get  too  much  of  a  start  and  be 
frozen  back  through  the  winter.  The  ideal  thing 
is  to  have  the  seed  just  nicely  germinated  before 
going  into  winter  quarters.  Of  course  the  advantage 
of  fall  planting  is  to  secure  flowers  early.  In  north- 
ern latitudes  the  advisability  of  fall  planting  is 
questionable. 


84  PEAS   AND    PEA    CULTURE 

Do  not  sow  the  seed  less  than  two  inches  deep, 
and  even  three  and  four  inches  gives  good  results. 
When  the  young  plants  begin  to  grow  and  reach  a 
height  of  three  to  six  inches,  it  is  easy  enough  to 
draw  more  soil  to  them  to  strengthen  the  stalks  and 
keep  the  roots  cool  through  the  hot  summer.  An 
ounce  of  seed  will  sow  about  15  feet  in  a  row.  Later 
thin  out  the  plants  to  five  to  six  inches.  This  will 
give  better  results,  for  if  the  plants  stand  too  thick 
the  vine  growth  will  be  dwarfed  and  flowers  in  pro- 
portion. 

The  methods  of  the  sweet  pea  enthusiast,  Rev. 
W.  T.  Hutchings,  formerly  of  Massachusetts,  no\V 
of  Colorado,  is  interesting.  He  figures  on  the  plants 
standing  five  inches  apart  in  the  row.  To  make  sure 
of  each  plant  coming,  he  puts  the  seed  into  separate 
papers  and  buries  the  packets  for  about  a  week  in 
an  inch  of  dirt.  Then  he  selects  the  seed  that  has 
germinated  first,  and  plants  it  as  indicated.  This 
gives  an  even  stand  and  he  knows  exactly  what  to 
expect.  His  method  is  of  special  importance  where 
seed  is  high  priced.  In  ordinary  practice  amateurs 
sow  sweet  peas  just  about  the  same  as  they  would 
ordinary  garden  sorts. 

Culture. — The  hoe  and  plenty  of  elbow  grease 
back  of  it  will  be  repaid  many-fold  through  extra 
growth,  size,  and  desirable  bloom.  The  sweet  pea 
is  not  unlike  other  plants  in  this  respect,  for  fre- 
quent stirring  of  the  soil  conserves  moisture  and 
opens  up  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  elements.  In 
hot,  dry  seasons  many  provide  mulching  in  the  form 
of  straw,  swale  grass,  or  coarse  stable  manure.  This 
may  be  made  even  more  successful  by  thorough 
watering  occasionally. 


SWEET 'PEAS    AND   THEIR    CULTURE  85 

As  to  fertilizer,  bone  combinations  are  recognized 
as  among  the  best.  English  gardeners  recommend 
ordinary  soot,  this  not  only  because  of  its  fertilizing 
value,  but  also  its  action  in  keeping  away  insects. 
One  method  of  using  this  is  as  follows :  Take  a  peck 
of  soot  in  a  bag  and  let  it  dissolve  for  a  few  hours 
in  a  pail  or  tub  of  water.  Guano  may  be  used  in  the 
proportion  of  one  pound  to  20  gallons  of  the  water. 
Farm  yard  manure  in  a  liquid  state,  about  the  con- 
sistency of  weak  tea,  is  very  good.  Nitrate  of  soda 
should  be  used  sparingly,  and  only  at  the  start,  to 
force  the  plants  along. 

One  New  York  enthusiast  gives  the  following  ex- 
perience :  "  Last  year  I  sowed  sweet  peas  early  in 
May,  along  the  east  side  of  the  house.  A  trench  was 
dug  six  inches  deep  in  which  was  placed  some  well- 
rotted  cow  manure.  A  little  earth  was  placed  over 
this,  and  the  seeds  sown.  They  were  covered  with 
about  two  inches  of  dirt.  When  peas  were  well  up> 
I  placed  eight-inch  boards  around  the  bed  to  hold 
in  the  dirt  and  as  the  plants  grew  I  put  in  a  mixture 
of  two  parts  good,  rich  earth  and  one  part  well- 
rotted  manure,  also  one  part  wood  ashes.  This  was 
filled  in  occasionally  until  the  soil  was  even  with 
the  top  of  the  boards.  July  I  the  peas  were  three 
feet  tall  and  had  started  blooming.  They  continued 
until  November,  and  were  a  continual  mass  of 
blossoms,  reaching  a  height  of  seven  feet.  They  were 
watered  almost  every  night  after  sundown." 

Sweet  peas  are  occasionally  grown  in  greenhouses 
to  furnish  winter  bloom.  The  early  varieties  will 
require  two  to  three  months  to  furnish  profusion 
of  bloom.  They  are  usually  started  in  pots,  kept 
cool  in  the  early  stage,  and  later  forced  with  heat 


86  PEAS   AND   PEA    CULTURE 

and  well-rotted  stable  manure.  The  trailing  type 
of  sweet  pea  is  best  adapted  to  indoor  culture.  Oc- 
casionally, there  is  bother  about  buds  dropping,  es- 
pecially if  plants  are  overfertilized.  This  is  not 
likely  to  continue  beyond  a  few  days  when  plants 
will  assume  the  proper  balance,  and  blossoms  will 
appear  as  desired.  Sweet  pea  seed  germinates 
slowly.  Therefore,  the  grower  should  not  be  in  too 
big  a  hurry  to  dig  out  the  seed  or  condemn  it. 

Enemies  of  the  Sweet  Pea. — Red  spider  and  green 
aphis  must  be  watched.  They  multiply  rapidly  and 
sap  a  tremendous  amount  of  nourishment  from  the 
growing  plants.  Spraying  with  whale-oil  soap,  or 
a  weak  solution  of  kerosene  oil,  will  be  effective. 
Cutworms  are  occasionally  destructive,  especially 
if  land  has  not  been  worked  for  two  or  three  years. 
Trap  crops,  such  as  peas,  lettuce,  etc.,  have  been 
used  to  protect  the  peas,  also  a  dusting  of  tobacco 
powder  about  the  plants.  However,  the  poisoned 
bait,  such  as  a  little  paris  green  mixed  with  bran 
or  a  few  sprigs  of  clover  dipped  in  paris  green  and 
placed  for  the  cut  worms  to  eat,  is  perhaps  best  of 
all.  The  blight  occasionally  appears  and  causes 
trouble,  usually  during  dry  seasons  and  when  plants 
are  cultivated  shallow.  The  remedy  is  to  plant  the 
seed  deeper  and  use  every  means  to  keep  the  vines 
growing  vigorously. 

Trellising. — Except  in  the  dwarf  and  recumbent 
types,  some  means  of  support  should  be  provided 
for  the  rapidly  growing  vines.  The  simplest  method 
in  vogue  is  brush.  In  other  cases,  various  types  of 
framework  are  provided.  It  is  possible  to  drive 
posts  and  string  wires  or  strings  every  few  inches, 
beginning  at  the  bottom  and  working  up  to  the  top 


SWEET   PEAS   AND  THEIR   CULTURE  87 

as  the  vines  grow.  An  ordinary  poultry  wire  nailed 
to  posts  furnishes  a  satisfactory  support.  This 
may  be  placed  on  a  movable  post  and  taken  up  each 
fall  and  wire  rolled  and  set  aside  for  another  season. 

Types  and  Varieties. — The  varieties  of  sweet  pea 
are  legion.  As  far  back  as  1793,  a  London  seed  man 
listed  five  varieties,  including  the  following  colors : 
White,  purple,  scarlet,  black,  and  painted  lily.  Three 
or  four  decades  later  yellow  and  striped  variations 
appeared.  Then  came  flesh  pink,  rose  pink,  etc. 
When  Henry  Eckford  interested  himself  in  the 
breeding  and  improvement  of  sweet  peas  in  1876,  he 
soon  had  many  variations  and  combinations  of 
color,  also  of  form  and  conformation.  In  1898  there 
were  about  150  specifically  named  sorts.  Now  there 
are  many  more. 

The  standard  type  of  sweet  peas  for  decades  was 
the  tall-growing  sort  for  northern  latitudes  where 
climate  is  comparatively  cool.  California  was 
among  the  first  states  in  America  to  become  inter- 
ested in  sweet  peas.  It  was  not  long  before  the 
environment  produced  a  variation  of  the  tall  sorts; 
a  semi-dwarf  more  adapted  to  exposure  where 
climate  is  dry  and  hot  became  recognized.  This 
class  is  known  as  the  Cupid  sweet  pea.  Foliage  is 
thick,  dense,  and  reaches  down  well  over  the 
ground,  protecting  the  roots  from  exposure.  An- 
other type  is  the  Bush  sweet  pea,  something  similar 
to  the  Cupid  as  regards  height  and  adaptability. 
However,  foliage  is  .not  so  dense  and  does  not  reach 
down  to  the  ground  as  thoroughly.  It  is  sufficiently 
dwarfed  so  that  no  support  is  needed.  Still  a  third 
type  is  the  Trailing  sweet  pea,  where  the  vine  is  in- 
clined to  be  recumbent.  It  seldom  reaches  more 


88  PEAS   AND    PEA    CULTURE 

than  18  inches  in  height,  is  an  exceedingly  early 
bloomer  and  adapted  to  sections  further  south  than 
the  standard  sorts.  This  latter  type  is  also  recom- 
mended for  growing  under  glass  to  furnish  blooms 
for  winter  gardening. 

Edwin  Jenkins,  superintendent  of  the  Bellefon- 
taine  Gardens  of  Massachusetts,  makes  the  follow- 
ing selection  of  varieties  for  producing  satisfactory 
results  in  almost  any  garden.  White:  Dorothy 
Eckford,  Nora  Unwin,  White  Spencer.  Pink: 
Countess  Spencer,  Gladys  Unwin,  Bolton's  Pink. 
Primrose:  James  Grieve,  Primrose  Spencer,  Mrs. 
Collier.  Rose :  John  Ingham,  George  Herbert,  E. 
J.  Castle.  Scarlet :  Queen  Alexandra,  Marie  Corelli, 
King  Edward.  Maroon:  Black  Knight,  Othello, 
Duke  of  Westminster.  Orange:  Miss  Wilmott, 
Helen  Lewis,  St.  George.  Light  Blue:  Flora  Nor- 
ton, Mrs.  George  Higginson,  Jr.,  Romiolo  Piazzaini. 
Dark  Blue :  Lord  Nelson,  Navy  Blue,  Captain  of  the 
Blues.  Variegated  Blue :  Helen  Pierce,  Prince  Olaf, 
Phenomenal.  Lavender:  Asta  Ohn,  Frank  Dolby, 
Lady  Grisel,  Hamilton. 

Four  Cardinal  Don'ts. — When  it  comes  to  select- 
ing varieties  one  can  hardly  do  better  than  get  in 
touch  with  some  reputable  seed  grower  who  will 
provide  a  catalogue  with  full  description  for  various 
types  and  strains.  If  one  would  succeed  with  sweet 
peas,  there  are  four  fundamental  don'ts  suggested 
by  W.  A.  Burpee,  the  Pennsylvania  seed  grower, 
worthy  of  emphasis:  (i)  Don't- expect  sweet  peas 
to  thrive  in  soil  too  poor  for  any  other  culture,  or  in 
a  sunless  location.  They  need,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
a  free  deep  loam  and  moderately  rich  freely  cul- 
tivated soil.  (2)  Don't  sow  too  shallow.  Plant  seed 


SWEET    PEAS    AND   THEIR    CULTURE  89 

at  least  two  inches  deep,  and  when  plants  are  two 
to  three  inches  tall  draw  more  soil  up  to  them  in 
ridge  form.  (3)  Don't  overfeed  with  a  view  to  ob- 
tain vigorous  growth  and  profusion  of  growth.  Bone 
in  some  form  is  the  best  fertilizer.  Nitrate  of  soda 
will  do  for  a  hurry-up  stimulant,  but  use  it  spar- 
ingly. (4)  Don't  gather  the  blooms  grudgingly. 
The  more  you  cut  the  longer  the  vine  will  continue 
to  flower.  Remember,  when  they  go  to  seed,  sweet 
peas  will  cease  flowering. 


INDEX 


PAGE 
.     86 


Aphis  attacks  sweet  peas 

B 

Breeding,  experiments  with 70-71 

Fixing    special    points 71 

Improving    peas    < 

Possibilities   in    69 


Canned  peas  as  an  industry 44 

Blanching   and   preparing   liquor  49 

Dates  of  harvesting 45,  47 

Distribution    44-45 

Grading   the   crop 47 

Thrashing     48 

Size   of  cans 49 

Varieties    of    45 

Cans,  heating  and  cooling  of....  51 

Leaks    in    52 

Size    of    49 

Chickens,  peas  for 34-35 

Composition,  comparative  table  of  26 

Compared   with   other   foods...  27 

Principal    constituents    in 25 

Nutritive   value    determined 29 

Nutritive   value   of 27 

Value  of  for  different  animals.  30 

Cooking,   best    manner    of - 

Process  for  canned 50 

Cowpeas,   cultural   methods 63 

Description  and  value  of 61 

For    stock    63 

How    handled    62 

Cows,    peas    for 31 

Cultivation,  time  and  manner....  20 

Culture  of  sweet  peas 84 


Digestibility,    coefficients   of 


30 


30 


Feeding  value,   for  stock  ........ 

Fertilizer,    amount    removed    from 

soil    ......................      10 

Effect    of    liming  .............      11 

Effect   on  maturity,  yield,   etc..      10 
Peas    as    ....................     57 

Those  best  adapted  ........... 

To  use  for  forage  and  soiling.     55 


PAGE 
Forage  and  soiling,  how  to  handle 

for    best    results 54 

Forage,  peas  for  stock 58-59 

Peas    as    54 

Forcing,  in  winter 76 


Garden    peas,   cultural    methods..  72 

Germination,    percentage    of 73 

Temperature    of    74 

H 

Harvest,  curing  of 22 

Method  of  21 

Thrashing  of  22 

Time  of  20 

Horses,   peas   for 34 


I 
Inoculation,    desirable    for    peas.. 

Experiments     with     commercial 
cultures    

Methods   of    

Reciprocal  with   other  bacteria. 
Insect  and  fungous  pests,  miscel- 
laneous   insects     

Miscellaneous    pea    fungi 

Of   sweet   peas 

Pea  blight    

Pea    louse    

Pea    moth    

Powdery    mildew    

Root    rot    fungus 

The    principal    ones 


12 

13 
12 
13 

40 
42 
86 
41 
39 
38 
42 
42 
36 


Leaf  spot,  description  and  control     41 
Lime,    effect   on   peas 11 

N 
Nitrogen,    conditions    favoring    its 

fixation    

Peas    take    from    air 11 


Orchards,   peas    in 64 


Pea   blight,   description    and    con- 
trol     


41 


PAGE 

Pea  louse,  description  and  methods 

of   control    39 

Pea  meal,  composition   and   feed- 
ing   value    26 

Pea  moth,  description  and  methods 

of  control    38 

Peas,   as   forage   crop 54 

As    green    manure 57 

As    nitrogen    gatherers 11 

As   silage 52-54 

Blanching    of    49 

Breeding    of    66 

Buffalo     3 

Canning   industry   of 44 

Ceylon     3 

Chick    1 

Classification  of   3 

Combination     for     forage     and 

soiling     54 

Composition    of    25 

Cooking    and    digestibility 29 

Cover  crop   for  orchards 64 

Cowpeas   2 

Cultivation  of   20 

Distribution     4 

Enemies  of   36 

Flat    1 

For    cows     31 

For   garden    72 

Inoculation  desirable    12 

Legume  family  of  plants 1 

Meal    26 

Origin    and    history 4 

Partridge    2 

Place    in   rotation .' 7 

Processing   or   cooking 50 

Qualities    of    canned 50 

Spoiling   of   canned 51 

Square    pod     2 

Supports  for   74 

Sweet    3 

Table   of  pea-producing  states.  5 

Tangier     3 

Time  of  planting    15 

Varieties    of    76 

Wide   adaptability   of 6 

Winter    forcing    of 76 

Yield  of 23 

Pea     silage,     how     handled     and 

value    of    53 

Use  at   factories   52 

Planting,  depth  of 17 

Manner  of   18 

Of  sweet    83 

Time  and  manner  of 15 

Powdery   mildew,    how   to   control  42 


Red  spider,   attacks  sweet  peas.. 


PAGE 
Root   rot   fungus,   description    and 

treatment     42 

Rotation,  place   of  peace 7 


Seed,   amount   of    15 

Considerations  of 18 

Effect   of  poor    19 

Germination    of    73 

Growing    a    specialty 66 

Improvement    of    66 

Methods  of  seed  breeding...    66-69 

Weight  and  specific  gravity 71 

Sheep,    peas    for 32 

Silage,  peas  make 54 

Soil,   considerations    for  sweet...  83 

Those   best   adapted  to  peas...  7 

Spoilage   of  canned 51 

Spoiling   and   forage,   how   to   get 

succession    54 

Steers,  peas  for  32 

Stock,   cowpeas   for 63 

Peas    for 31-35 

Straw,    value    of 27 

Value   of   for  stock 31 

Sweet   peas,  best  soils 83 

Four  cardinal  don'ts 88 

Culture 82,  84 

Enemies   of    , 86 

Fertilizer  for 85 

History    of    82 

In  greenhouses   85 

Sowing   of    83 

Trellising    86 

Types    and    varieties 87 

Swine,  peas   for 33 


Thrashing,  approved  methods  of  22-23 


Varieties,  classification  of 79 

Difference  in  yield 77 

How  to  select 80-81 

Large  number  of 76 

Types  of  sweet  peas 87-88 

Viner,  use  in  canned  pea  industry     48 


W 

Weevil,   in   peas 36 

Methods  of  control 37 


Yield,    difference    in    varieties 77 

Of  forage  plants J 

Range  of   23 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


NOV    3    1934 

I/JW  07   fq/|Q 

viHii  &  |    itj*ro 

' 

LD  21-100m-7,'33 

.YB  47572 


225894 


